Operant Conditioning Theory Research Articles

Patrol Officer Perceptions of Agency Rewards and Punishments: A Research Note

The theory of operant conditioning is based on the premise that people are motivated to engage in, or refrain from, certain behaviors because of the rewards and punishments they may receive (Honig 1966; Skinner 1974). While managers within law enforcement agencies frequently use both rewards and punishments to try to guide the behavior of their officers, little information exists about how police officers perceive the rewards and punishments they utilize. This study surveyed a sample of patrol officers to determine how they ranked the value of several specific rewards, and the severity of several specific punishments. The findings suggested that a hierarchy of rewards and punishments exists in the minds of law enforcement officers, the ranking seemed to be associated with how they could impact the officer’s off-duty quality of life, and significant variation existed between officer responses. Interesting differences were also found by officer gender, tenure, and education.

Fostering safe work behaviour in workers at construction sites

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to propose and test a framework to foster safe work behaviour among workers on construction sites.Design/methodology/approachThe proposed framework identifies two main reasons for unsafe behaviours: “don't know how”, and “don't care”. Technical and safety training is proposed to overcome the former problem, while for the latter it is proposed that organisations systematically apply operant conditioning techniques to promote safety, using organisational behaviour modification. A postal survey of contractors in Singapore was conducted to test the framework. The four tools of operant conditioning theory (positive reinforcements, negative reinforcements, extinction, and punishments) were evaluated.FindingsClose and strict supervision, sending workers for safety and health training, and imposing fines are found to be most effective methods. Positive reinforcements (both monetary and non‐monetary) have also been found to be effective, while extinction did not receive much support. Other methods that may foster safe work behaviours are also discussed.Originality/valueSafety on site could be enhanced via training and application of operant conditioning theory.

“If You Don’t Hear from Me You Know You Are Doing Fine”

A study of 243 employees of two different hospitality organizations compared the effects of managers’ giving feedback with no comments at all (favorable or unfavorable). The study found that feedback, formally known as contingent reinforcement, improves performance even when that feedback involves negative or corrective comments. Echoing previous studies, this research found a positive relationship between contingent rewards and workers’ effectiveness and satisfaction. Moreover, contingent punishment also had a small positive relationship with effectiveness and satisfaction. Going beyond previous work, however, this study found that managers’ omission of any commentary on good performance has a direct, albeit moderate, negative relationship with workers’ effectiveness and a small, direct negative relationship on satisfaction. These findings point in the direction of the long-established psychological theory of operant conditioning, which suggests that a behavior that is totally ignored will eventually be extinguished. In this case, the behavior that will be lost is good service

Factors influencing accruement of contact hours for nurses.

A decline in attendance at continuing education (CE) in nursing activities was observed in a Midwest state where CE attendance is not required. The purpose of this research study was to identify the effect of attitude, extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement, and deterrents on contact hour accrual. A convenience sample of 282 registered nurses was surveyed using a researcher-constructed instrument determined to be valid and reliable. Registered nurses earning 0 to 15 contact hours annually reported accruing fewer contact hours in 1999 than in an average year. Registered nurses who earned 16 to 45+ contact hours annually reported earning more contact hours in 1999 than in an average year. Intrinsic reinforcement was found to be a significant motivator (r [257] = .242; p < .0001) for contact hour accrual, whereas extrinsic reinforcement was not. Skinner's Operant Conditioning Theory has use in explaining registered nurse attendance at CE activities. CE planners should consider placing more emphasis on intrinsic rather than extrinsic reinforcement to encourage staff to attend CE activities.

An Exploratory Study of Operant Conditioning Theory as a Predictor of Online Product Selection

The present research applies operant conditioning theory to the question of what products and services consumers will shop for and buy online. Operant conditioning theory explains differences between products that are used to alleviate uncomfortable experiences (negative reinforcement) and those providing enjoyable experiences (positive reinforcement). The preliminary results described in this study confirmed the importance of operant conditioning as a factor in the behavior of online shoppers. For example, when asked to provide an open-ended list of products that they had shopped for, our respondents mentioned products that produce positive reinforcement 476 times versus only 4 mentions for those that create negative reinforcement. Furthermore, for a list of seventeen common product categories, the results showed that respondents were not only less likely to shop for negative reinforcement products but also even less likely to purchase negative products online than positive products. The results of this exploratory study lay the groundwork for future research by introducing negative and positive reinforcement as a predictor of Internet shopping behavior.

Role of Aggressivity on Reactivity and Craving before and after Cue Exposure in Recently Detoxified Alcoholics: Results from an Experimental Study

The role of aggressivity and cue exposure in induction of craving were investigated in a clinical setting. Thirty abstinent alcoholic patients were divided into a low and a high aggressive group based on scores on the physical aggression subscale of the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory and exposed to alcohol cues. Craving was measured by means of the Alcohol Craving Questionnaire (ACQ) and Visual Analogue Scales (VAS). Important findings are: (1) main effects of aggressivity on ‘emotionality’, ‘purposefulness’ and ‘expectancy’ of ACQ were very significant; (2) on ‘drinking intention’ and ‘craving for alcohol’ of VAS, aggressivity and cue exposure showed a significant interaction; (3) the main effect of cue exposure on heart rate also reached a significance level of 0.007. The results were discussed in the context of the Classical, Operant Conditioning Theory, the Cognitive Craving Theory of Tiffany, Gilbert’s STAR Model, and the Self-Medication Hypothesis

A Review of the Physiological, Neurological and Behavioural Aspects of Addiction

Modern psychological and physiological theories of addiction are defined and reviewed. As well, the concept of an addictive personality is addressed and evaluated. On the one hand, psychological theories of addiction are described as either withdrawal driven, disorders of appetite, or motivational process disorders. Physiological theories, on the other hand, suggest that behavioural or pharmacological overstimulation of brain areas, such as the mesolimbic dopamine system, can explain addictive behaviour. Both dependence and withdrawal have been explained in terms of biological research, however, behavioural terminology (operant conditioning theory) has been cited in conjunction with biological theory. Further, a review of research pertaining to an addictive personality shows that the concept of an addictive personality is contentious, with investigations in this area showing a substantial number of methodological errors. Nevertheless, some investigators suggest that a stable trait can influence a person's addictive behaviour.

The psychology of the near‐miss (revisited): A comment on Delfabbro &amp; Winefield (1999)

This paper briefly comments on Delfabbro &amp; Winefield's (1999) paper ‘Poker‐machine gambling: An analysis of within‐session characteristics’, published in the British Journal of Psychology, and questions their notion that gambling is maintained by winning and losing sequences within the operant conditioning paradigm (i.e. that the only rewards and reinforcers in gambling are purely monetary). It is argued that Delfabbro and Winefield's contribution is too narrow in its focus in that they have taken no account of the ‘near miss’ in relation to operant conditioning theory and that there may be other reinforcers that play a role in the maintenance process. It is also argued that gambling is biopsychosocial behaviour, and should therefore be explained by a biopsychosocial account.

Opiate reinforcement processes: re‐assembling multiple mechanisms

Opiate reinforcement processes can be described within the context of operant conditioning theory. Both positive and negative reinforcing effects may motivate drug-taking behavior, although the strongest evidence attributes drug-taking to a simple positive reinforcement process. Empirical research has focused largely on a positive reinforcement mechanism involving the ventral tegmental dopamine system, but three additional reinforcement mechanisms can be argued on logical grounds. These other mechanisms involve neuroadaptive changes produced by chronic opiate administration and may contribute to the strong motivational impact of opiates following long-term drug use.

Environmental and interoceptive influences on chronic low back pain behavior

The operant conditioning theory states that environmental stimuli greatly influence chronic pain behavior. In contrast, the hypochondriasis theory states that pain behavior is the result of an intensified pain perception which is part of a more general augmentation and amplification of normal bodily sensations. The operant theory predicts that pain behavior (operationalized as poorer endurance on the part of chronic low back pain patients as compared to the endurance of control subjects in a series of 6 working-to-tolerance treadmill tests) will decrease when no verbal or non-verbal feedback for treadmilling behavior is given. This hypothesis could not be confirmed in the present study. The hypochondriasis theory predicts that chronic pain patients will report more bodily sensations, both at rest and after treadmill exercises. This hypothesis was strongly supported by the findings of the present study.

Sampling of schedule parameters by pigeons: tests of optimizing theory

In three experiments, pigeons (domesticated Columba livia) were exposed to concurrent randomratio schedules of reinforcement in a keypecking apparatus, as a simulation of foraging in an environment containing two patches of unknown food density. All reinforcements were given for pecks on a single key, but different patch densities were associated with different key colours, and the colour was changed following pecks to a second key. Patch densities varied from day to day, and no colour reliably signalled the better patch from session to session. In the first experiment, either 256 or 1024 pecks were allowed per session. As predicted by optimal sampling theory, the proportion of the first 256 pecks made in the denser patch, and the number of reinforcements gained during them, were higher in the short than in the long sessions. These results were simulated using principles derived from operant conditioning theory. In the second experiment, the number of different patch densities used was varied between conditions. Birds made fewer patch changes when the density range was more restricted. In the third experiment, the colour cues differentiating patch densities were dropped in one condition, and the birds were less successful at finding the better patch in this condition. These results show that pigeons are sensitive to aspects of a foraging situation that are predicted by optimal sampling theory (e.g. the session length), and also in ways that have not been considered so far (e.g. patch density range). But they also show that cues that are not logically necessary (e.g. patch key colour) may in practice be an essential part of an animal's mechanism for achieving efficient foraging.

Generations, status and party identification: A theory of operant conditioning

Five political generations in the U.S. national electorate are identified utilizing the theory of operant conditioning. The party identification of 11,312 white registered voters from the 1980New York Times/CBS News poll series is examined for these generations within social status (education) groupings.

Absenteeism and Behaviour Modification: A Review

Operant conditioning or behaviour modification has stressed the role that the immediate environment has in influencing individual behaviour. The central concepts in operant conditioning theory are those of punishment andreward. In this area theory has suggested how behaviour can be strengthened (reinforced) by paying systematic attention to the immediacy and the frequency of the environmental consequences that follow the performance of requiredbehaviours. While these behavioural principles have been widely applied in solving various educational and healthproblems, it is only recently that behaviourists have become interested in work related problems. This paper reviewsrecent applications of operant conditioning techniques to absenteeism and concludes that these techniquessystematically reduced absenteeism.

Performance Standards and Reinforcements effects on children's academic performance: A test of social learning theory

Operant conditioning and social learning theory explanations have been offered to explain Kanfer's self-regulation model, and the aim of this study was to place this model within a theoretical framework. A total of 108 schoolchildren (Mage =9.99 years)were assigned randomly to one of four groups in a 2 ×2 (Performance Standards ×Reinforcement)design, with the levels of the independent variables being self- and externally imposed contingencies. Persistence and accuracy of verbal and arithmetic tasks constituted the dependent variables. The results provide some support for social learning theory explanations: (a)Any significant self- versus external reinforcement differences were dependent on prior attributions of the perceived locus of behavior change; (b)stringent standards were more important than lenient standards; (c)differences between self-determined and yoked stringent standards were a function of task characteristics; and (d)the effects of self-regulation were task-specific.

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT THEORY EXAMINED

AbstractIt is argued that the attempts of Burgess and Akers and of Adams to formulate Sutherland's differential association theory in the language of operant conditioning theory fail to preserve Sutherland's interesting insights by reducing his theory to the mere claim that criminal behavior is operant conditioning behavior. Questions are then raised about the truth of even this claim. Some attention is also given to the question of the verification of both Sutherland's original theory and the operant Conditioning reformulations of it.

Hybrid theory of operant conditioning.

Hybrid theory of operant conditioning.

Graduate students and faculty learn behavior therapy of obesity

As part of a graduate nutrition course, ten students and a faculty member were given didactic and clinical experience in the behavioral treatment of obesity by a psychiatrist with practical knowledge of such techniques. Information on operant conditioning theory and its application to overeating were presented in two 2-hour lectures. A therapist manual written in dialog form was also provided to the students. Each student assumed responsibility for treating at least one patient during a 26-week weight reduction program using the behavioral techniques learned. Not only did most patients achieve satisfactory weight loss, but also the students acquired a valuable skill.

A token economy project with chronic schizophrenic patients.

The token economy is an application of operant conditioning theory which is particularly relevant to the treatment of patients in institutions. The basic idea is to motivate the patient to behave more appropriately and constructively by giving him tokens whenever he behaves in such a way. The tokens have an incentive function, as the patient can cash them in for a number of different things, such as pleasant single room accommodation, cigarettes, magazines, TV viewing, drinks etc., depending upon what is programmed into the token economy. The theory of operant conditioning is that not only does the token motivate the patient to behave in certain ways, but ‘reinforces' his behaviour. Such reinforced behaviour should eventually become an integral part of the ‘way he is', continuing even when the token is removed.

On Operant Conditioning and the Study of Culture

Jones (CA 12:171-89) has offered an operant conditioning view of the psychology of learning and its possible application to anthropological problems. It is precisely because the operant conditioning theory of learning is so closely allied to a technology that it has become so popular in psychology and in education. Before anthropologists accept it, however, they should be aware that it involves a particular view of what is learned as well as a particular theory as to how learning occurs. I shall here present this view and an alternative one and outline the consequences of each.1 As Jones indicates, learning occurs when an emitted operant is reinforced, or rewarded. For example, a pigeon will begin to stretch its neck when any upward movement of the head is reinforced (i.e., rewarded by food for a pigeon that weighs approximately 80% of its normal weight), and it will continue to stretch its neck as long as that movement is rewarded. The neck-stretching is the operant, and the food is the reinforcement.2 What has been learned is a connection between the operant (neck-stretching) and its consequence (the food reward). This connection has traditionally been called an association, and Thorndyke (1948), describing what was learned as a function of instrumental conditioning, spoke of it as an associative bond.3 But is what is learned merely a connection, merely a bond or association

Modification of deviant classroom behaviour.

Summary. With a view to suggesting appropriate control techniques the classroom behaviour of three children considered by their teachers to be deviant, was observed by simple time sampling methods. In addition to establishing adequate baselines for the frequencies of the reported behaviour, estimates of the teachers' use of positive and negative reinforcement were obtained. Informal advice was then given upon means of reducing the amount of deviant behaviour by means of reinforcement based upon operant conditioning theory and involving praising the desired behaviours whilst ignoring the deviant ones. The children were subsequently observed at weekly intervals. It was found that in one case the teacher was unable to follow this advice consistently and that there was no evidence of a decline in the occurrence of the deviant behaviour. In another case the observational data indicated a marked reduction, paralleled by what seems to be a general improvement in the teacher's classroom management skills. The third child's behaviour likewise exhibited an acceptable if less dramatic improvement. The practical implications of the results are discussed with particular regard to the training of teachers and educational psychologists.