Theory Of Mind Tests Research Articles

The relationship between executive functions and fluid intelligence in multiple sclerosis.

Deficits in cognitive functions dependent upon the integrity of the prefrontal cortex have been described in Multiple Sclerosis (MS). In a series of studies we have shown that fluid intelligence (g) is a substantial contributor to frontal deficits and that, for some classical "executive" tasks, frontal deficits were entirely explained by g. However, for another group of frontal tasks deficits remained once g was introduced as a covariate. This second set of tests included multitasking and theory of mind tasks. In the present study, we aimed at determining the role of fluid intelligence in frontal deficits seen in patients with MS. A group of patients with Relapsing Remitting MS (n = 36) and a group of control subjects (n = 42) were assessed with a battery of classical executive tests (which included the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Verbal Fluency, and Trail Making Test B), a multitasking test, a theory of mind test and a fluid intelligence test. MS patients showed significant deficits in the fluid intelligence task. We found differences between patients and control subjects in all tests except for the multitasking test. The differences in the classical executive tests became non-significant once fluid intelligence was introduced as a covariate, but differences in theory of mind remained. The present results suggest that fluid intelligence can be affected in MS and that this impairment can play a role in the executive deficits described in MS.

Cross-cultural comparison of theory of mind deficits in patients with schizophrenia from China and Denmark: different aspects of ToM show different results

Introduction: Theory of mind (ToM) has been established as one of the most investigated and pronounced social cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Yet, knowledge on whether measures of ToM can be used and compared across cultures is sparse. In this study, we used two simple, non-verbal ToM tests in patients with schizophrenia and non-clinical controls from China and Denmark to investigate whether culture has an impact on ToM performance.Methods: Sixty-six patients with schizophrenia (35 Chinese) and 67 matched non-clinical controls (38 Chinese) from China and Denmark were tested with Brünés Picture Sequencing Task and Animated Triangles Task. We compared three models for each outcome variable in order to investigate which model best fitted the data: the first model included group (controls, patients) as a predictor variable, the second included group and nationality (Chinese, Danish), and the third included both predictors and their interaction.Results: On most ToM subtests, culture seemed to play a role. Only performance on Brüne’s 1st order ToM were best described as similar in both countries. The second model had the best fit for most of the subtests indicating that the difference between patients and controls in China and Denmark, respectively, is similar.Conclusions: Caution to cultural differences should be taken when comparing ToM in Asian and Western patients with schizophrenia as well as healthy individuals.

Executive Functions do not Underlie Performance on the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT) in Healthy Younger and Older Adults.

Current measures of social cognition have shown inconsistent findings regarding the effects of executive function (EF) abilities on social cognitive performance in older adults. The psychometric properties of the different social cognition tests may underlie the disproportional overlap with EF abilities. Our aim was to examine the relationship between social cognition and EF abilities using the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT; Baksh, R.A., Abrahams, S., Auyeung, B., & MacPherson, S.E. (2018). The Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT): Examining the effects of age on a new measure of theory of mind and social norm understanding. PloS One, 13(4), e0195818.), a test assessing four different aspects of social cognition: cognitive theory of mind (ToM), affective ToM, interpersonal understanding of social norms, and intrapersonal understanding of social norms. We administered the ESCoT, EF measures of inhibition, set shifting, updating, and a measure of processing speed to 30 younger and 31 older adults. We also administered the Visual Perspective Taking task (VPT) as a ToM test thought to be reliant on EF abilities. Better performance on cognitive ToM was significantly associated with younger age and slower processing speed. Better performance on affective ToM and ESCoT total score was associated with being younger and female. Better performance on interpersonal understanding of social norms was associated with being younger. EF abilities did not predict performance on any subtest of the ESCoT. In contrast, on the VPT, the relationship between age group and performance was fully or partially mediated by processing speed and updating. These findings show that the ESCoT is a valuable measure of different aspects of social cognition and, unlike many established tests of social cognition, performance is not predicted by EF abilities.

The adaptation and evaluation of psychometric properties of the Lithuanian versions of the Faux Pas Recognition and Strange Stories tests

Background. One of the main subdomains of social cognitive functions, Theory of Mind (ToM), involves the ability to understand other people’s thoughts, intentions, emotions, and predict their behaviour. ToM deficit is common in many neurological and mental disorders. So far, there have been no measures assessing ToM functions adapted to the Lithuanian-speaking population.Objective. To translate and perform a linguistic and cultural adaptation of two ToM tests – the Faux Pas Recognition test and Happé Strange Stories test – to the Lithuanian-speaking population and to evaluate their psychometric properties.Materials and methods. Both instruments were translated from English into Lithuanian and from Lithuanian into English. A total of 100 adult subjects were tested using Lithuanian test variants. The reliability and validity of the instruments were evaluated. Internal consistency was estimated by calculating the Cronbach α coefficient, the inter-rater reliability by the intraclass correlation coefficient, and the convergent construct validity by the Spearman correlation coefficient.Results. The Cronbach α coefficient for the faux pas stories of the Faux Pas Recognition test was 0.815, for the control stories 0.426, and for the Strange Stories test 0.708. The intraclass correlation coefficient of the faux pas stories of the Faux Pas Recognition test was 0.996, and that of the Strange Stories test was 0.911. There was a statistically significant weak positive correlation between the Strange Stories test and the faux pas stories ratings (r=0.355, p=0.045), but the control stories of the Faux Pas Recognition test did not statistically significantly correlate with the faux pas stories (r=0.033, p=0.745) and Happé Strange Stories test (r=0.109, p=0.282). The face and content validity of both instruments was good.Conclusions. The Faux Pas Recognition test and Happé Strange Stories test are adapted to the Lithuanian-speaking population. Both instruments can be useful in evaluating social cognitive functions.

Lesion localization and performance on Theory of Mind tests in stroke survivors: a systematic review

Lesion localization and performance on Theory of Mind tests in stroke survivors: a systematic review

Self-efficacy in abused and neglected pregnant women: attachment theory and theory of mind perspectives

ABSTRACT Traumatic experiences in childhood shape victims’ working models of themselves and others. Disrupted working models due to childhood abuse and neglect (CAN) mediates poor behavioural outcomes in adulthood. Pregnancy is a period that requires mothers to adopt their new roles and activates the aforementioned working models. Hence, the relationships between CAN history and attachment, and the theory of mind and parental self-efficacy were investigated. Two-hundred and eighty-three physically healthy pregnant women, with mean age of 28.72 (SD = 5.59), participated in the study voluntarily. CAN, attachment styles, perceived maternal self-efficacy and theory of mind were evaluated. One hundred and three women (36.4%) were categorized as abused. The abused group had significantly higher scores for preoccupied and indifferent attachment types. The preoccupied attachment score had negative correlation with achievement in theory of mind test. The non-abused group’s perceived self-efficacy in parenting skills and in the baby’s emotion dimensions were better than the abused group. Number of children, total abuse score and secure attachment score had effect on maternal self-efficacy score. Parents’ negative experiences may have a relationship with their parental roles. Understanding of the attachment patterns and related factors may play an important role in strengthening the parent–infant relationship.

Assessment of implicit language and theory of mind in multiple sclerosis.

Increasing evidence suggests that social cognition, especially theory of mind (ToM), is impaired in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS). ToM appears to be a determining factor for social functioning, but research has shown a connection between ToM and pragmatic language disorders among people with neurological or psychiatric disorders. Yet, pragmatic language remains a domain rarely referenced in MS. We investigated the effect of MS in terms of the ability for making inferences via pragmatic understanding and ToM. We included 21 individuals with MS and 21 healthy controls matched for age, education and linguistic skills who performed verbal tasks involving pragmatic language (Implicit Information Management Test, Narrative Discourse Task), ToM (Test of Social Faux Pas) and a visual task of making inferences (Visual Inferences Test). Performance was significantly lower for individuals with MS than controls in the Test of Social Faux Pas (total score), but performance in pragmatic tasks did not differ. Performance was significantly lower for MS individuals for logical inference on the Implicit Information Management Test and pragmatic inference on the Visual Inferences Test. Additionally, for the MS group, the total score on the Implicit Information Management Test was correlated with the faux pas test total score and hits. Even with lack of marked cognitive decline and disability in individuals with MS and lack of differences between groups in pragmatic tasks, the MS group showed lower performance in making inferences and interpreting implicit and social situations. This study highlights the link between pragmatic language and ToM difficulties in MS.

Theory of mind and social competence in children and adolescents with temporal lobe epilepsy.

The primary aim of this study was to examine theory of mind (ToM) and its relationship to social competence in children and adolescents with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). The secondary aim was to explore the relationship between ToM, social competence, epilepsy variables, and executive functioning (EF). Twenty-two children and adolescents (8-16 years old) with TLE and 22 typically developing controls completed two advanced behavioural tests of ToM (faux-pas, strange stories), measures of EF and verbal IQ. Parents completed questionnaires assessing ToM and social competence of their child. Epilepsy variables were obtained from treating neurologists and interviews with parents. Children and adolescents with TLE had significant impairments in cognitive and affective ToM, reduced social competence, and lower verbal IQ than controls. Although verbal IQ was reduced in the TLE group, it was not related to ToM or social functioning. ToM impairment (a single score encompassing cognitive and affective ToM) was significantly correlated with social competence problems in our TLE group. Longer duration of epilepsy was related to reduced ToM and social competence, while earlier onset of seizures was related to social competence problems only. Finally, EF was neither impaired nor related to ToM or social problems in children and adolescents with TLE. This study revealed marked ToM impairments and associated social difficulties in children and adolescents with TLE. The results support studies demonstrating similar impairments in children with other epilepsy subtypes and highlight the importance of detecting and treating ToM and social difficulties in this group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Theory of mind impairment in Huntington's disease patients and their relatives.

Huntington disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder characterized by movement disorders, cognitive impairment, and psychiatric symptoms. Relatives of HD patients experience a great burden as the latter suffer from altered social conduct and deterioration of interpersonal relationships. Theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to attribute mental states (to oneself and others). Deficits in ToM are thought to have a role in the changes in empathy and interpersonal difficulties that HD patients face. METHODS We conducted a cross sectional study to compare ToM task scores of patients with mild to moderate HD, their relatives (spouse or at-risk first-degree relative with a negative gene test) and controls.Individuals with dementia or depression were excluded. The ToM test battery included Spanish versions of the Reading Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET), Happé's Strange Stories (Social and Physical Stories subtests) and the Hinting Task. RESULTS The series comprised 12 HD patients, 12 relatives and 12 controls. The HD patients showed lower affective ToM scores than controls (RMET 19 [3.5] vs 23.9 [2.7], p = 0.016). Cognitive ToM tasks scores were lower in HD patients than controls as well (Happé's Social Stories 9 [2.6] vs 13 [1.9], p = 0.001; the Hinting Task 13.6 [3.4] vs 17.5 [4.0], p = 0.009). In the Hinting Task, HD relatives had lower scores in than controls (13 [3.2] vs 17.5 [4.0], p = 0.009) and similar scores to controls in the rest of the battery. CONCLUSION The HD patients with mild to moderate disease severity and their relatives show ToM deficits.

Similarities and Differences in Theory of Mind Responses of Patients With Anorexia Nervosa With and Without Autistic Features.

Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to understand and represent mental states of others, a skill that plays a key role in how we interact with people around us. Difficulties with ToM have been posited as an underlying mechanism for autism and implicated in difficulties faced by those with anorexia nervosa (AN). This study examined, both quantitatively and qualitatively, the responses of women between the ages of 14 and 25 years on the Frith-Happé Triangle Animations, a well-validated test of ToM. Participants were split into healthy controls (HCs), AN patients (AN), and AN patients with high levels of autistic features (AN+ASF). We found no significant quantitative differences between groups in performance on the task. Qualitatively, there were differences between groups such that AN patients, especially those in the AN+ASF group, were more focused on describing the videos than creating narratives, were more negative in their interpretations, and were much more anxious about their performance. These qualitative differences have clinical implications, including that not all AN patients with autistic features should be assumed to have difficulties with ToM.

Animal Faux Pas: Two Legs Good Four Legs Bad for Theory of Mind, but Not in the Broad Autism Spectrum

Research shows that the general population varies with regard to both autistic traits and theory of mind (ToM) ability. Other work has shown that autistic individuals may not underperform on ToM tests when the agent of evaluation is anthropomorphic rather than typically human. Two studies examined the relation between ToM and autistic trait profiles in over 650 adults using either the standard Faux Pas Recognition Test (FPT) or an anthropomorphized version of the FPT (FPTa). Results showed that autistic trait profiles were related to faux pas detection ability in the FPT but not the FPTa. Furthermore, while those with the broad autism phenotype scored significantly worse than those who were typically developed on the FPT, scores did not significantly differ on the FPTa. These findings add to a growing body of work suggesting that ToM ability is not at a global deficit in those on the autistic spectrum, but may relate to the mindreading of specifically human agents.

Okul öncesi dönem çocuklarının zihin kuramı ve sosyal problem çözme becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi

Bu araştırmanın amacı okul öncesi dönem çocuklarının zihin kuramı becerileri ile sosyal problem çözme becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesidir. Okul öncesi eğitime devam etmekte olan 60-68 ay grubundan 43’ü kız, 39’u erkek olmak üzere toplam 82 çocuk çalışmaya dahil edilmiştir. Araştırmada, belirlenen iki değişkenin ölçülmesine ve aralarındaki ilişkinin derecesinin saptanmasına dayanan ilişkisel tarama modelinden yararlanılmıştır. Çocukların sosyal problem çözme becerilerini ölçmek amacıyla 48-72 Aylık Çocuklara Yönelik Sosyal Problem Çözme Becerileri Ölçeği ve zihin kuramı becerilerini ölçmek amacıyla Zihin Kuramı Testleri kullanılmıştır. Yapılan t-testi sonuçlarına göre çocukların sosyal problem çözme becerileri ve zihin kuramı becerilerinin cinsiyete göre anlamlı bir farklılık oluşturmadığı görülmüştür. Pearson korelasyon analizi sonuçlarına göre çocukların zihin kuramı ve sosyal problem çözme becerileri arasında pozitif yönlü anlamlı bir ilişki olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Ayrıca çocukların zihin kuramı becerilerinin sosyal problem çözme becerilerine ilişkin toplam varyansın %68’ini açıkladığı görülmektedir.

Social cognition impairments are associated with behavioural changes in the long term after stroke.

Background and purposeBehavioural changes after stroke might be explained by social cognition impairments. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether performances on social cognition tests (including emotion recognition, Theory of Mind (ToM), empathy and behaviour regulation) were associated with behavioural deficits (as measured by proxy ratings) in a group of patients with relatively mild stroke.MethodsProspective cohort study in which 119 patients underwent neuropsychological assessment with tests for social cognition (emotion recognition, ToM, empathy, and behaviour regulation) 3–4 years post stroke. Test scores were compared with scores of 50 healthy controls. Behavioural problems were assessed with the Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX) self rating and proxy rating scales. Pearson correlations were used to determine the relationship between the social cognition measures and DEX scores.ResultsPatients performed significantly worse on emotion recognition, ToM and behaviour regulation tests than controls. Mean DEX-self score did not differ significantly from the mean DEX-proxy score. DEX-proxy ratings correlated with tests for emotion recognition, empathy, and behavioural regulation (lower scores on these items were associated with more problems on the DEX-proxy scale).ConclusionsSocial cognition impairments are present in the long term after stroke, even in a group of mildly affected stroke patients. Most of these impairments also turned out to be associated with a broad range of behavioural problems as rated by proxies of the patients. This strengthens the proposal that social cognition impairments are part of the underlying mechanism of behavioural change. Since tests for social cognition can be administered in an early stage, this would allow for timely identification of patients at risk for behavioural problems in the long term.

Comparison of the Theory of Mind Tests on the Paper, 2D Touch Screen and Augmented Reality Environments on the Students With Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The study is a vital instance to merge the psychology and the computer science disciplines to provide benefits about the developments of the theory of mind (ToM) skills of and interaction with for the students with neurodevelopmental disorders (SWND). In this research, a traditional two-dimensional (2D) method (paper), a 2D display touch screen and the three-dimensional (3D) [augmented reality (AR)] visual displays based on the computer are constructed for the SWND to do the ToM test questions. In this work, The Little Prince story written by Antoine de Saint-Exupery is adapted to the ToM test questions to measure the SWND's ToM abilities. In this novel approach, three environments: a traditional 2D method (paper), the 2D display touch screen, and the AR visual display environments are experienced by the SWND. The experimental results are compared according to SWND's ToM success ratios, their ToM perspective skills', their satisfaction on these different test environments. This research suggests the novel approach to measure the ToM abilities of the SWND with human-computer interaction aspect. This article displays the positive effects of the 2D display touch screen and the AR usage on the Tom Test for the SWND.

Theory of mind: its development and its relation to communication disorders: a systematic review

Objective To define theory of mind (TOM), its development, its significance, its assessment, its deficits and intervention. Data sources Medline databases (PubMed, Medscape and Science Direct) and all materials available in the Internet from 1990 to 2016. Study selection The initial search presented 250 articles of which 47 met the inclusion criteria. The articles studied the development, assessment, deficits and intervention of TOM. Data extraction If the studies did not fulfill the inclusion criteria, they were excluded. Study quality assessment included whether ethical approval was gained, eligibility criteria specified, appropriate controls, adequate information and defined assessment measures. Data synthesis Significant data were collected. It was heterogeneous. Thus, a structured review was performed with the results tabulated. Conclusion TOM is the ability to infer the mental states such as (beliefs, thoughts, intentions) to one-self and to the others. Joint attention is an early precursor of TOM development. Theoretical accounts of TOM mechanism are, the Theory Theory, Simulation Theory and Modularity Theory. Many tools used in its assessment as false belief tasks (e.g., Sally and Anne task) and TOM test. It is impaired in autism, attention deficits hyperactivity disorder, hearing impairment, schizophrenia and dementia. Intervention solutions for the deficit are undertaken. Phoniatritions should be aware of TOM as a cognitive capacity that plays a big role in our communication. They should initiate appropriate assessment and interventions for disorders having TOM deficits.

Cognitive and affective theory of mind in Korsakoff's syndrome.

Korsakoff's syndrome (KS) is a chronic neuropsychiatric disorder characterised by severe anterograde amnesia and executive deficits. Theory of Mind (ToM) is the capacity to represent others' mental states such as their knowledge, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and intentions in order to explain and predict their behaviour. Surprisingly this topic has received hardly any attention in research on KS, although the severity of behavioural problems in KS suggest possible ToM difficulties. The aim of the present study was therefore to assess whether cognitive and affective ToM are impaired in patients with KS. We examined 21 KS patients and 21 age- and gender-matched healthy controls on three standardised tests that assess cognitive and affective ToM, including the subtests of the mini-Social Cognition and Emotional Assessment battery and a specialised version of the Sally-Anne Test. KS patients showed largely impaired cognitive and affective ToM compared to healthy controls, as reflected in large effect sizes on both cognitive and affective ToM tests. Executive deficits explained problems in emotion recognition, but not other ToM aspects. KS patients have large impairments in both cognitive and affective aspects of social cognition. Their ability to recognise emotions, take the perspective of others, and understand socially awkward situations is vastly compromised. The impairments in ToM functioning are to a large degree functionally discrepant from executive disorders that are commonly present in KS. This study therefore highlights the importance to properly index ToM functioning in neuropsychological assessments for individuals with a possible KS diagnosis.

General Intelligence (g), ACT Scores, and Theory of Mind: (ACT)g Predicts Limited Variance Among Theory of Mind Tests

This study is the first to examine relations between general intelligence (g), non-g factors, and theory of mind (ToM) using structural equation modeling with multiple indicators of g and ToM. g was based on the subtests of the ACT, a college admissions test that is strongly g loaded, and ToM was based on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test and the Short Story Test (SST). g correlated strongly with a latent ToM factor (β = .65) and moderately with the two ToM tests (β ≈ .34), which correlated modestly with each other (β = .27). The modest correlation between the ToM tests indicates that g predicted a small amount of variance among the ToM tests (7%) and suggests that the ToM tests had little in common. In addition, non-g residuals of the ACT subtests, obtained after removing g, correlated negligibly with the ToM factor and the ToM tests (|β| < 0.06). Similar results were obtained for the ToM residuals, which correlated trivially with the ACT subtests. The trivial non-g effects suggest that g-ToM relations were attributable to “not much more than g.” The results replicated with different combinations of ACT subtests, controls for possible confounds (reading comprehension on the SST), and another college admissions test (the SAT). The use of a convenience sample (college students) and the limited measures of g and ToM are discussed as limitations. Future research should examine the robustness of effects using different measures of g and ToM and also examine possible mediators of g-ToM relations (e.g., executive functions).

Basic and advanced theory of mind in school-aged children with cochlear implants

Background and Aim: Theory of Mind (TOM) refers to the ability for attributing mental states and beliefs to ourselves and others, and understanding that the others’ mental states can be different from ours. However, this ability seems to be delayed in children with the history of hearing impairment. Based on the evidence, there is a mutual association between language development and social experiences. The present study aimed to assess TOM and the effect of speech therapy in 8- to 9-year-old children with cochlear implants (CIs).Methods: The present study was descriptive and cross-sectional in design. A total of 18 Persian-speaking children with CIs and 18 normal children aged 8-9 years participated in the current study. Children with CIs were selected through convenience method from Amir Alam Hospital and normal peers from their play-ground. The participants had no history of sensory, anatomical, neuronal, and speech disorders. The basic and advanced TOM was assessed with Ghamarani TOM test and a comparison was done between normal children and children with CIs. The obtained data were analyzed by SPSS 21.Results: The performance of the two groups with regard to the basic and advanced TOM was significantly different (p&lt;0.001). Moreover, there was a significant positive correlation between the duration of speech therapy and TOM abilities (r=0.46, p=0.041).Conclusion: Hearing impairment affects the ability of TOM in children with CIs. The duration of speech therapy has a positive effect on the development of TOM.

Cognitive and affective associations with an ecologically valid test of theory of mind across the lifespan.

Many studies have demonstrated that theory of mind (ToM) ability declines with increasing age. Research has found that ToM-age associations are often mediated by other cognitive abilities particularly executive function. However, older adults rarely complain about real-world ToM difficulties. It has been suggested that older adults may perform better in real-world situations compared with experimental settings. We examined performance on the Strange Stories Film Task (SSFT) which has been designed to assess ToM using naturalistic, video scenarios. Sixty adults aged between 17- and 95-years-old completed the SSFT, inhibitory control (Stroop) and working memory (letter-number sequencing) measures, the basic empathy scale (cognitive and affective empathy), and the broad autism phenotype questionnaire. ToM performance correlated significantly with age, whereas performance on a control task did not. Partial correlations and stepwise regression analyses demonstrated that performance on the three SSFT ToM measures was explained by a combination of executive function and empathy measures, with age explaining none of the variance. Using a naturalistic test of ToM, performance was shown to decline with age for ToM but not control scenarios. Across the lifespan, the variance in ToM performance was explained by cognitive abilities and empathy but not age. Age alone may not influence ToM ability, but may be associated with age-related changes in cognition and social-cognition. (PsycINFO Database Record

Do Bilinguals Have an Advantage in Theory of Mind? A Meta-Analysis

Bilingualism might help children develop Theory of Mind, but the evidence is mixed. To address the disagreement in the literature, a meta-analysis was conducted on studies that compared bilingual and monolingual children on false belief and other Theory of Mind tests. The meta-analysis of 16 studies and 1,283 children revealed a small bilingual advantage (Cohen’s d=.22, p=.050). A secondary analysis was conducted on studies (k=8) that statistically adjusted the Theory of Mind scores to correct for a bilingual disadvantage in language proficiency. This secondary analysis indicated a medium-size bilingual advantage (Cohen’s d=.58, p<.001). There was no evidence for publication bias in either analysis. Taken together, the results provide support for a beneficial effect of acquiring two languages on mental state reasoning. Explanations for this bilingual advantage, which include bilingual-monolingual differences in executive functioning, metalinguistic awareness, and socio-pragmatic abilities, are discussed.