Adaptation Level Theory Research Articles

Contextual effects in salary satisfaction

Abstract This article reports a series of studies of judgments of satisfaction with salary, manipulating the distribution of salaries of others doing the same work. The experiments were designed to compare 6 theories of contextual effects in judgment, including adaptation-level theory, correlation–regression theory, inferred distribution (ID) theory, decision by sampling (DbS), ensemble (EN) theory, and range–frequency (RF) theory. Manipulations of the frequency distribution using cubic density functions produce a double crossover of curves relating judgments to salaries; this double crossover violates implications of 4 of the theories but remains consistent with DbS and RF theories. ID theory assumes that rank is inferred from the mean and endpoints, so it fails to describe the double crossover. Manipulations of the endpoints produce changes in the heights and slopes of the curves, which are not explained by DbS and are partially inconsistent with EN theory. EN theory implies no effect of the rank of a salary and assumes that endpoints only affect judgments of salaries on the same side of the mean, contrary to the results. RF theory implies that ratings of stimuli holding the same ranks in 2 contexts with differing endpoints should be linearly related, and the data appeared consistent with this implication. RF theory is the only theory that gives a consistent account of all of the results. RF theory can be extended in order to estimate the effective context, which appears to differ systematically between people according to their full-time incomes.

The reference price effect of historical price lists in online auctions

This study investigates the reference price effect of historical price lists—which are provided in the auction description—on ending prices. This paper estimates and compares three different theories for the reference price effect of price lists: adaptation-level theory, range theory and range-frequency theory. In contrast to previous research, we find support for range theory. Specifically, the maximum price on the historical price list positively impacts the auction ending price, while the price range has a negative effect. Furthermore, the reference price effects are attenuated by the number of prices on the list and the type of product sold.

A semiparametric approach to estimating reference price effects in sales response models

It is well known that store-level brand sales may not only depend on contemporaneous influencing factors like current own and competitive prices or other marketing activities, but also on past prices representing customer response to price dynamics. On the other hand, non- or semiparametric regression models have been proposed in order to accommodate potential nonlinearities in price response, and related empirical findings for frequently purchased consumer goods indicate that price effects may show complex nonlinearities, which are difficult to capture with parametric models. In this contribution, we combine nonparametric price response modeling and behavioral pricing theory. In particular, we propose a semiparametric approach to flexibly estimating price-change or reference price effects based on store-level sales data. We compare different representations for capturing symmetric vs. asymmetric and proportional vs. disproportionate price-change effects following adaptation-level and prospect theory, and further compare our flexible autoregressive model specifications to parametric benchmark models. Functional flexibility is accommodated via P-splines, and all models are estimated within a fully Bayesian framework. In an empirical study, we demonstrate that our semiparametric dynamic models provide more accurate sales forecasts for most brands considered compared to competing benchmark models that either ignore price dynamics or just include them in a parametric way.

An experimental study on perceptual contrast of tonal length: Research from the viewpoint of Adaptation-level theory

An experimental study on perceptual contrast of tonal length: Research from the viewpoint of Adaptation-level theory

Job Insecurity, Job Instability, and Job Satisfaction in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought new challenges regarding employee adaptation to change as well as job security, with levels of wellbeing and satisfaction being greatly affected. Based on the literature as well as on Adaptation-level Theory, Stress and Coping Theory, and Motivationhygiene Theory, this paper approaches the link between job insecurity and job instability during the COVID-19 pandemic along with employee job satisfaction in an emerging market. The proposed conceptual model analyses the influence of job instability and job insecurity on individual job satisfaction, including supervisor support and promotion opportunities. The survey-based empirical study was implemented with the aid of a questionnaire taken by 568 employees in Romania. The results determined with the help of a correlation analysis highlight a strong, direct, and positive link between job instability and employee insecurity in increasing employee competitiveness. The impact of job insecurity and instability on the components considered in terms of job satisfaction vary. Job insecurity was shown to manifest a negative correlation only with regard to satisfaction concerning supervisor support and promotion opportunities. Perceived job instability showed a significant negative impact on individual work satisfaction, satisfaction with supervisor support and promotion opportunities. This paper also enhances the human resources literature by demonstrating how organisational competitiveness might be enhanced during a global pandemic by focusing on employees.

The Roller Coaster of Leader Affect: An Investigation of Observed Leader Affect Variability and Engagement

Recognizing the dynamic nature of affect, we consider observed leader affect and its variability as important social signals that jointly impact employees’ daily affective reactions and work engagement. Integrating the emotion as social information model and adaptation-level theory, we hypothesized that the impact of daily observed leader affect on employees’ affect and subsequent work engagement is moderated by observed leader affect variability. To test the model, an experience sampling method (ESM) involving two surveys per day over 10 days was employed with a sample of 75 employees. Results indicated that observed leader affect variability weakened the positive relationship between observed leader positive affect and employee work engagement via employee positive affect. Also, observed leader negative affect was negatively related to employee work engagement via employee negative affect, but this indirect effect was not moderated by observed leader affect variability. Our results highlight the critical role of observed leader affect variability in understanding leaders’ affective influence on employee affect and engagement.

Visual-Haptic Size Estimation in Peripersonal Space

In perceptual psychology, estimations of visual depth and size under different spatial layouts have been extensively studied. However, research evidence in virtual environments (VE) is relatively lacking. The emergence of human-computer interaction (HCI) and virtual reality (VR) has raised the question of how human operators perform actions based on the estimation of visual properties in VR, especially when the sensory cues associated with the same object are conflicting. We report on an experiment in which participants compared the size of a visual sphere to a haptic sphere, belonging to the same object in a VE. The sizes from the visual and haptic modalities were either identical or conflicting (with visual size being larger than haptic size, or vice versa). We used three standard haptic references (small, medium, and large sizes) and asked participants to compare the visual sizes with the given reference, by method of constant stimuli. Results show a dominant functional priority of the visual size perception. Moreover, observers demonstrated a central tendency effect: over-estimation for smaller haptic sizes but under-estimation for larger haptic sizes. The results are in-line with previous studies in real environments (RE). We discuss the current findings in the framework of adaptation level theory for haptic size reference. This work provides important implications for the optimal design of human-computer interactions when integrating 3D visual-haptic information in a VE.

"Few" or "Many"? An Adaptation Level Theory Account for Flexibility in Quantifier Processing.

Quantifiers (e.g., “many,” “some,” “at least seven,” “more than half”) are words characterizing amounts or numerosities by reference to an internal threshold, or degree. For some quantifiers, this degree is not uniquely defined: It varies for external contexts (“many lions”/“many flies”) but may also be shifted within an individual (“many fries” for a hungry/full person). Previous studies showed that manipulation of the degree for one quantifier can impact that of other quantifiers. In this study, we tested whether such changes can occur by mere habituation, as formalized in the Adaptation Level Theory by Helson (1948) for sensory stimuli such as brightness or weight. To this end, participants read a quantifier statement and then judged whether a visual display with varying amounts (20–80%) of blue and yellow circles matched that statement. In Block 1, we identified which proportion of circles of a given color was judged by participants as “many” or “few.” In Block 2, we modified the presentation of stimuli such that (1) only the quantifier “many” was used and (2) only low proportions of circles of a given color were presented, thus changing the base rate at which proportions were encountered together with “many.” The hypothesis was that the internal degree of what is interpreted as “many” would be shifted downward and that this shift would also affect judgments of “few.” Block 3 was identical to Block 1, serving as a test for the expected effect on the degree/threshold for/across all proportions. The findings were as expected: The probability of accepting 40% as “many” was increased during Block 2, indicating adaptation. Likewise, the probability function for “few” was shifted in a parallel fashion around the proportion 40%. These findings complemented earlier studies demonstrating intra-individual flexibility in quantifier processing. They show that this flexibility can even be observed in the absence of explicitly stated verbal contexts or reinforcements, in line with the Adaptation Level Theory formulated originally for magnitudes, i.e., non-linguistic representations of quantities.

Moderating Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression in the Relationship Between Tinnitus and Hearing Loss Among Patients

Adaptation level theory of tinnitus and neuropsychological theory of tinnitus are extensively used frameworks for understanding emotional and psychological distress among tinnitus sufferers. Objective of the present study was to investigate potential associations between hearing loss, tinnitus, anxiety, depression, and stress. The Tinnitus Handicap Inventory (Newman, Jacobson, & Spitzer, 1996) and the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995)scales were administered to a sample of 110 tinnitus outpatients recruited from Audiology departments of Lahore and Rawalpindi hospitals. Results revealed tinnitus was positively linked with psychological problems. Additionally, it was established that tinnitus is a positive significant predictor for anxiety, stress and depression. The moderation models related to the interactions between psychological problems and hearing loss were negative significant predictors for tinnitus symptoms. Moreover, the comparative analysis between gender differences revealed a significant diversity in the levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. Results also elucidated that patients at initial stages of hearing loss were more prone towards reporting tinnitus symptoms along with emerging psychological problems.

A jump to the left and a step to the right: A test of two accounts of peak shift

“Peak Shift” usually occurs following intradimensional-discrimination training and involves a shift of the peak of the generalization gradient away from the original discriminative stimulus (S+) in a direction away from an S-. Two theoretical accounts of peak shift, the gradient interaction theory (GIT) and adaptation level theory (ALT), were compared. The effects of asymmetric test stimuli and the impact of instructions to participants for them to treat stimuli as members of categories on generalization gradients were investigated. In Experiment 1, the relation between peak shifts obtained when an extended asymmetric set of test stimuli was employed and the occurrence of categorization of the stimuli involved was investigated in four separate conditions. Two involved temporal discrimination, one involved line-angle discrimination, and one involved a compound line-angle and temporal cue discrimination. If participants treated the stimuli as belonging to discrete categories, such as hands-on a clock, rather than as being on continuous dimensions then responding to the compound cue was expected to result in attenuation of blocking of a peak shift. However, the peak shift obtained to the three cue types were the same. In Experiment 2, an independent group of participants was given explicit instructions to treat the line angles as if they were the hands of a clock face and this eliminated peak shift. The results from the present experiments support an ALT interpretation, although the peak shifts were significantly smaller in magnitude than predicted by this account.

Residential Tourists’ Perceptions of Quality of Life: Case of Alanya, Turkey

Researches on tourism investigating quality of life have become an important study area for tourism scholars over the last few decades. Thus, focus points have started to evolve from the macro impact of tourism to the micro impact on individuals and their well-being. The aim of this study is to determine factors that have an impact on the perception of quality of life of the residential tourists. To this end, correspondence analysis and log-linear model are employed that visualize the results and reveal significant factors and interactions terms. According to findings, some demographic factors such as gender, duration of living in Alanya and nationality have an impact on quality of life perception of residential tourists. Besides, supportive evidence for adaptation level theory, used for explaining the effects of big life events on quality of life perception, was found.

Motivating job characteristics and happiness at work: A multilevel perspective.

Employees may react differently to the perceived availability of motivating job characteristics during work activities, depending on the degree to which such motivating job characteristics are also present at the job level and individual differences. This study expands Job Characteristics Theory (JCT) by using a multilevel approach to predict how variations in motivating job characteristics relate to employee happiness during daily work activities. Based on adaptation level theory and the affective-reactivity hypothesis, we predicted that the positive relationship between perceived motivating job characteristics and happiness during work activities is moderated by motivating job characteristics at the job level and individual differences in trait positive affect. A sample of 68 employees filled out a general survey and reported on their job characteristics and happiness during 741 work activities using a day reconstruction method across five working days. In line with adaptation level theory, multilevel results confirmed that the perceived availability of motivating job characteristics during work activities relates positively to happiness during that same work activity, but only when similar motivating job characteristics at the job level are low. In addition, trait positive affect further moderated this cross-level interaction. In line with the affective-reactivity hypothesis, the 3-way interaction effect showed that for employees who are high in positive affect, the perceived availability of motivating job characteristics related positively to happiness during specific work activities, regardless of whether similar motivating job characteristics at the job level were high or low. We discuss how these findings add important temporal dynamics to JCT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

HARRY HELSON’S ADAPTATION-LEVEL THEORY, HAPPINESS TREADMILLS, AND BEHAVIORAL ECONOMICS

Psychologist Harry Helson (1898–1977) developed Adaptation-Level (AL) theory during the 1930s to the 1970s, while economics was being refined through ordinalism and expected utility theory. This essay accounts for the process of transmission of AL theory from psychophysics to behavioral psychology and eventually economics. It explains how the concept of adaptation reflectance, originally intended to explain color vision, developed into an experimental approach that caught the attention of both psychologists and economists working on welfare analysis and behavioral research. It also argues that the history of AL theory—so far, absent from narratives about economics and psychology—is worth exploring in order to gain a better understanding of the relationship between the two disciplines.

A Theory of Life Satisfaction Dynamics: Stability, Change and Volatility in 25-Year Life Trajectories in Germany

An adequate theory of life satisfaction (LS) needs to take account of both factors that tend to stabilise LS and those that change it. The most widely accepted theory in the recent past—set-point theory—focussed solely on stability (Brickman and Campbell, in: Appley (ed) Adaptation level theory, Academic Press, New York, pp 287–302, 1971; Lykken and Tellegen in Psychol Sci 7:186–189, 1996). That theory is now regarded as inadequate by most researchers, given that national panel surveys in several Western countries show that substantial minorities of respondents have recorded large, long term changes in LS (Sheldon and Lucas in The stability of happiness, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2014). In this paper we set out a preliminary revised theory, based mainly on analysis of the LS trajectories of the 2473 respondents in the German Socio-Economic Panel who reported their LS for 25 consecutive years in 1990–2014. The theory entails three sets of propositions in which we attempt to account for stability, change and also volatility. First, it is proposed that stability is primarily due to stable personality traits, and also to parental influence on LS. The second set of propositions indicates that medium and long term changes are due to differences and changes in personal values/life priorities and behavioural choices. Differences in the priority given to pro-social values, family values and materialistic values affect LS, as do behavioural choices relating to one’s partner, physical exercise, social participation and networks, church attendance, and the balance between work and leisure. Medium term change is reinforced by two-way causation—positive feedback loops—between values, behavioural choices and LS. The third set of propositions breaks new ground in seeking to explain inter-individual differences in the volatility/variability of LS over time; why some individuals display high volatility and others low, even though their mean level of LS may change little over 25 years.

The Personality Profile of Tinnitus Sufferers and a Nontinnitus Control Group.

Chronic tinnitus (phantom perception of sound) significantly disrupts quality of life in 15-20% of those who experience it. Understanding how certain personality traits impact tinnitus perception and distress can be beneficial for the development of interventions to improve the lives of tinnitus sufferers. Four key self-reported personality traits (social closeness, stress reaction, alienation, and self-control) were identified from previous research as being associated with tinnitus. These were compared between tinnitus and age-, gender-, and hearing level-matched nontinnitus controls to see whether underlying profile differences exist, and if personality traits levels correlate with various tinnitus characteristics assessed in typical clinical questionnaires. A Web-based personality survey was administered comprising of self-control, stress reaction, alienation, and social closeness subscale questions of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire, the Hearing Handicap Inventory-Screening Version, TFI, and the Tinnitus Case History Questionnaire. A total of 154 participants with tinnitus (81 males, 73 females, mean age = 62.6 yr) and 61 control (32 males, 29 females, mean age = 59.62 yr) participants were recruited via e-mail invitations to a tinnitus research clinic database, poster, and social media Web site advertising. Statistical analysis was conducted using parametric statistics and IBM SPSS® Version 22 software. Tinnitus sufferers displayed higher levels of stress reaction, lower social closeness, lower self-control, and higher alienation than the control group (p < 0.05). Alienation was related to tinnitus pitch and self-reported hyperacusis measured using the Tinnitus Case History Questionnaire (p < 0.05). Stress reaction correlated with self-reported hyperacusis, whether tinnitus sufferers had sought other treatments, and whether loud sounds make the tinnitus worse (p < 0.05). The four personality traits examined in this study exhibited a consistent association with tinnitus perception and distress, and differentiated tinnitus sufferers from nontinnitus control. Some of the traits also correlated significantly with certain characteristics measured in tinnitus history questionnaires. Personality traits are described in relation to "maladaptive" residuals under the Adaptation Level Theory model of tinnitus. The results of the study suggest that certain personality traits correlate with the clinical presentation of tinnitus.

A Mixed-Methods Trial of Broad Band Noise and Nature Sounds for Tinnitus Therapy: Group and Individual Responses Modeled under the Adaptation Level Theory of Tinnitus.

Objectives: A randomized cross-over trial in 18 participants tested the hypothesis that nature sounds, with unpredictable temporal characteristics and high valence would yield greater improvement in tinnitus than constant, emotionally neutral broadband noise.Study Design: The primary outcome measure was the Tinnitus Functional Index (TFI). Secondary measures were: loudness and annoyance ratings, loudness level matches, minimum masking levels, positive and negative emotionality, attention reaction and discrimination time, anxiety, depression and stress. Each sound was administered using MP3 players with earbuds for 8 continuous weeks, with a 3 week wash-out period before crossing over to the other treatment sound. Measurements were undertaken for each arm at sound fitting, 4 and 8 weeks after administration. Qualitative interviews were conducted at each of these appointments.Results: From a baseline TFI score of 41.3, sound therapy resulted in TFI scores at 8 weeks of 35.6; broadband noise resulted in significantly greater reduction (8.2 points) after 8 weeks of sound therapy use than nature sounds (3.2 points). The positive effect of sound on tinnitus was supported by secondary outcome measures of tinnitus, emotion, attention, and psychological state, but not interviews. Tinnitus loudness level match was higher for BBN at 8 weeks; while there was little change in loudness level matches for nature sounds. There was no change in minimum masking levels following sound therapy administration. Self-reported preference for one sound over another did not correlate with changes in tinnitus.Conclusions: Modeled under an adaptation level theory framework of tinnitus perception, the results indicate that the introduction of broadband noise shifts internal adaptation level weighting away from the tinnitus signal, reducing tinnitus magnitude. Nature sounds may modify the affective components of tinnitus via a secondary, residual pathway, but this appears to be less important for sound effectiveness. The different rates of adaptation to broadband noise and nature sound by the auditory system may explain the different tinnitus loudness level matches. In addition to group effects there also appears to be a great deal of individual variation. A sound therapy framework based on adaptation level theory is proposed that accounts for individual variation in preference and response to sound.Clinical Trial Registration: www.anzctr.org.au, identifier #12616000742471.

Adaptation and fallibility in experts' judgments of novice performers.

Competition judges are often selected for their expertise, under the belief that a high level of performance expertise should enable accurate judgments of the competitors. Contrary to this assumption, we find evidence that expertise can reduce judgment accuracy. Adaptation level theory proposes that discriminatory capacity decreases with greater distance from one's adaptation level. Because experts' learning has produced an adaptation level close to ideal performance standards, they may be less able to discriminate among lower-level competitors. As a result, expertise increases judgment accuracy of high-level competitions but decreases judgment accuracy of low-level competitions. Additionally, we demonstrate that, consistent with an adaptation level theory account of expert judgment, experts systematically give more critical ratings than intermediates or novices. In summary, this work demonstrates a systematic change in human perception that occurs as task learning increases. (PsycINFO Database Record

Corrigendum: A Mixed-Methods Trial of Broad Band Noise and Nature Sounds for Tinnitus Therapy: Group and Individual Responses Modeled under the Adaptation Level Theory of Tinnitus

[This corrects the article on p. 44 in vol. 9, PMID: 28337139.].

Examining the short term effects of emotion under an Adaptation Level Theory model of tinnitus perception

ObjectivesExisting evidence suggests a strong relationship between tinnitus and emotion. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of short-term emotional changes along valence and arousal dimensions on tinnitus outcomes. Emotional stimuli were presented in two different modalities: auditory and visual. The authors hypothesized that (1) negative valence (unpleasant) stimuli and/or high arousal stimuli will lead to greater tinnitus loudness and annoyance than positive valence and/or low arousal stimuli, and (2) auditory emotional stimuli, which are in the same modality as the tinnitus, will exhibit a greater effect on tinnitus outcome measures than visual stimuli. Study designAuditory and visual emotive stimuli were administered to 22 participants (12 females and 10 males) with chronic tinnitus, recruited via email invitations send out to the University of Auckland Tinnitus Research Volunteer Database. Emotional stimuli used were taken from the International Affective Digital Sounds- Version 2 (IADS-2) and the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) (Bradley and Lang, 2007a, 2007b). The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross and John, 2003) was administered alongside subjective ratings of tinnitus loudness and annoyance, and psychoacoustic sensation level matches to external sounds. ResultsMales had significantly different emotional regulation scores than females. Negative valence emotional auditory stimuli led to higher tinnitus loudness ratings in males and females and higher annoyance ratings in males only; loudness matches of tinnitus remained unchanged. The visual stimuli did not have an effect on tinnitus ratings. The results are discussed relative to the Adaptation Level Theory Model of Tinnitus. ConclusionsThe results indicate that the negative valence dimension of emotion is associated with increased tinnitus magnitude judgements and gender effects may also be present, but only when the emotional stimulus is in the auditory modality. Sounds with emotional associations may be used for sound therapy for tinnitus relief; it is of interest to determine whether the emotional component of sound treatments can play a role in reversing the negative responses discussed in this paper.

Why doesn’t feedback correct Vierordt’s law?

ABSTRACTVierordt [(1868). Der zeitsinn nach versuchen. Tübingen: Laupp] observed that participants over-reproduce short durations and under-reproduce long durations within a test range of sample durations (Vierordt’s law). Similar phenomena have been reported for sensory and other processing (e.g. [Helson (1964). Adaptation-level theory. New York: Harper & Row; Stevens, and Greenbaum (1966). Regression effect in psychophysical judgment. Perception & Psychophysics, 1, 439–446]. Performance feedback (knowledge of results) does not correct this performance distortion although it does correct other errors. In Experiment 1, I tested the hypothesis that a random presentation order of the standard durations makes feedback on one trial inappropriate for the next trial preventing correction of the Vierordt effect. In Experiment 2, participants performed two consecutive reproductions after each standard duration. Having the opportunity to immediately utilize the feedback from the first reproduction did not eliminate the Vierordt effect, although participants did attempt to correct the error on the first reproduction. In Experiment 3, the Vierordt effect was reduced in a blocked presentation design. Feedback produced more veridical performance. I conclude that the resistance of the Vierordt effect to correction by feedback may result, in part, from feedback on a given trial being misapplied to correcting performance on the next trial. Ironically, the Vierordt effect, which produced the differing directions and magnitudes of performance errors reported by the feedback, may be what prevents feedback from correcting for the Vierordt effect.