Action Regulation Theory Research Articles

Drowning in emails: investigating email classes and work stressors as antecedents of high email load and implications for well-being.

High email load has been associated with impaired well-being because emails impose specific demands, disturb the workflow, and thereby overtax individuals' action regulation toward prioritized goals. However, the causes and well-being-related consequences of email load are not yet well understood, as previous studies have neglected the interaction type and function of emails as well as co-occurring stressors as antecedents of high email load and have relied predominantly on cross-sectional designs. In two studies, we aimed to clarify the nature of email load through the lens of action regulation theory. The first study, a two-wave investigation with a fortnightly interval, examined the lagged relationships among email load, work stressors, strain, and affective well-being. The sample included 444 individuals across various occupations and organizations, with 196 of them working from home or remotely at least part of the time. In the second cross-sectional study, we surveyed 257 individuals using a convenience sampling approach, 108 of whom worked from home or remotely at least partially. This study focused on evaluating how different email classes-distinguished by email interaction type (received vs. processed) and email function (communication vs. task)-serve as predictors of high email load. In Study 1, we found a positive lagged effect of high email load on strain, even when controlling for the co-occurring stressors time pressure and work interruptions. In addition, lagged effects of email load on time pressure and interruptions were identified, while no evidence was found for the reverse direction. The results of Study 2 suggest that only the number of communication-related emails received, but not the number of task-related emails received, or the number of all emails processed contribute to high email load. Findings suggest that email load can be considered a unique stressor and that different classes of email need to be distinguished to understand its nature. Clarifying the sources of email load can help develop effective strategies to address it.

Algorithmic management and human-centered task design: a conceptual synthesis from the perspective of action regulation and sociomaterial systems theory.

This paper aims to explain potential psychological effects of algorithmic management (AM) on human-centered task design and with that also workers' mental well-being. For this, we link research on algorithmic management (AM) with Sociomaterial System Theory and Action Regulation Theory (ART). Our main assumption is that psychological effects of sociomaterial systems, such as AM, can be explained by their impact on human action. From the synthesis of the theories, mixed effects on human-centered task design can be derived: It can be expected that AM contributes to fewer action regulation opportunities (i.e., job resources like job autonomy, transparency, predictability), and to lower intellectual demands (i.e., challenge demands like task complexity, problem solving). Moreover, it can be concluded that AM is related with more regulation problems (i.e., hindrance demands like overtaxing regulations) but also fewer regulation problems (like regulation obstacles, uncertainty). Based on these considerations and in line with the majority of current research, it can be assumed that the use of AM is indirectly associated with higher risks to workers' mental well-being. However, we also identify potential positive effects of AM as some stressful and demotivating obstacles at work are often mitigated. Based on these considerations, the main question of future research is not whether AM is good or bad for workers, but rather how work under AM can be designed to be humane. Our proposed model can guide and support researchers and practitioners in improving the understanding of the next generation of AM systems.

Action-oriented entrepreneurial training and career resilience: a serial mediation model

PurposeThe combination of action and process has remained the attention of the psychology of entrepreneurship research. Moreover, special attention has also been paid to the whens and hows of entrepreneurial psychological training. Keeping this in view the current study has tested the impact of individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) training on small business entrepreneurial career resilience. Using action regulation theory (ART), a serial mediation model of IEO behaviour and entrepreneurial career adaptability is hypothesised.Design/methodology/approachThis study used a longitudinal randomised controlled field experiment in which the data were collected at four points. A total of 546 small business owners from Lahore, Pakistan, participated in this research (training group = 265, control group = 281). The data were analysed using ANCOVAs and PROCESS Model 6.FindingsThe research has found that IEO training impacts the entrepreneurial career resilience of small business owners through the development of IEO behaviour and career adaptability.Originality/valueThis experimental inquiry is a novel attempt to extend the career-related outcomes of IEO training (career resilience) based on ART through the mediating role of IEO behaviour and career adaptability. In addition, it has tested the IEO training in the developing country of Pakistan, which is a relevant context for enhancing its socio-economic growth.

Individual entrepreneurial orientation training: an experimental insight into small business owner career success

PurposeBased on action regulation theory (ART), this study aims to test the impact of individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) training on small business owner career success (financial attainment, satisfaction and achievement). Moreover, this relationship was unpacked through a dual mediation model of IEO behaviour and career resilience.Design/methodology/approachA four-wave, longitudinal randomized controlled field experiment was conducted in which 527 small business owners participated from Lahore, Pakistan (training group = 256, control group = 271). The data analysis was done via ANCOVAs (group comparison) and PROCESS Model 6 (for serial mediation).FindingsThe results demonstrated that after getting IEO training, the small business owners had increased IEO behaviour, career resilience and career success as compared to their counterparts in the control group. In addition, the effect of IEO training on career success was attributed to the underlying role of IEO behaviour and career resilience development.Originality/valueThis is one of the few studies that have demonstrated the impact of IEO training on the career-related outcomes based on the action regulation perspective.

Is it bad because it is boring? Effects of idle time on employee outcomes

ABSTRACT Idle time is a period during which employees cannot complete their work tasks for reasons beyond their control. It has previously been shown to have negative consequences for employees’ performance and well-being. To shed light on the mechanisms underlying these effects, we argue based on affective events theory and action regulation theory that idle time is an event that leads to boredom. Since boredom is a negative affective experience that motivates employees to do something about their situation, it may reduce job satisfaction and increase extra-role behaviour (i.e., prosocial and counterproductive) and turnover intentions. We tested our hypotheses using a sample of 1,036 employees who participated in a five-wave longitudinal study across 12 months. Results showed that, at both the within-person and between-person levels, idle time was positively associated with boredom, which, in turn, was associated with lower job satisfaction, higher counterproductive work behaviour, and higher turnover intentions, but not with prosocial work behaviour. These associations were robust when additionally controlling for work environment features (e.g., working from home), dispositions (e.g., personality), and demographic characteristics. Thus, idle time seems to be a boring and mostly negative experience for employees. Employees and managers should organize work to avoid boredom whenever possible.

Getting on top of work‐email: A systematic review of 25 years of research to understand effective work‐email activity

AbstractIn the last 25 years, work‐email activity has been studied across domains and disciplines. Yet, despite the abundance of research available, a comprehensive, unifying framework of how work‐email activity positively impacts both well‐being and work‐performance outcomes has yet to emerge. This is a timely and significant concern; work‐email is the most prominent and popular form of work communication but it is still unclear what people need to do to be effective emailers at work. To address this, we undertook a rigorous cross‐disciplinary systematic literature review of 62 empirical papers. Using action regulation theory, we developed a multi‐action, multi‐goal framework and found four ‘super’ actions that consistently predict effectiveness (positive well‐being and work‐performance outcomes). These actions involve: (i) communicating and adhering to work‐email access boundaries; (ii) regularly triaging emails (iii) sending work‐relevant email and (iv) being civil and considerate in work‐email exchanges. We found that super actions are engaged when workers have the resources to appropriately regulate their activity, and can attend to their self, task and social needs. Our framework synthesizes a broad and disparate research field, providing valuable insights and guiding future research directions. It also offers practical recommendations to organizations and individuals; by understanding and encouraging the adoption of work‐email super actions, effective work‐email practices can be enhanced.

Do behavioural intentions matter? A diary study on work-related ICT-use after work hours

ABSTRACT Because work-related ICT use after hours (WICT) has often been linked to negative outcomes, it is intriguing that many people still engage in this behaviour, often on a daily basis. Yet, qualitative research suggests that WICT may be less harmful when people consciously plan to engage in this behaviour. Drawing on Action-Regulation Theory, this paper tests the assumptions that WICT is sometimes a planned behaviour that people intend to engage in in response to work-related stimuli (e.g., daily unfinished tasks, daily workload) and that the outcomes of this behaviour are less detrimental when WICT is more intended or planned. We tested our hypotheses using a 5-day diary study (i.e., two measurement points a day) among 186 Flemish employees. We found that daily unfinished tasks – though not daily workload – were positively related to daily WICT via daily intentions to engage in WICT. Furthermore, daily intentions to engage in WICT were found to strengthen, rather than buffer, the negative relationship between daily WICT and psychological detachment. We found no moderation effect of daily intentions to engage in WICT in the relationship between WICT and work-to-home conflict. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

The More Competent, the Better? The Effects of Perceived Competencies on Disclosure Towards Conversational Artificial Intelligence

Conversational AI (e.g., Google Assistant or Amazon Alexa) is present in many people’s everyday life and, at the same time, becomes more and more capable of solving more complex tasks. However, it is unclear how the growing capabilities of conversational AI affect people’s disclosure towards the system as previous research has revealed mixed effects of technology competence. To address this research question, we propose a framework systematically disentangling conversational AI competencies along the lines of the dimensions of human competencies suggested by the action regulation theory. Across two correlational studies and three experiments ( Ntotal = 1453), we investigated how these competencies differentially affect users’ and non-users’ disclosure towards conversational AI. Results indicate that intellectual competencies (e.g., planning actions and anticipating problems) in a conversational AI heighten users’ willingness to disclose and reduce their privacy concerns. In contrast, meta-cognitive heuristics (e.g., deriving universal strategies based on previous interactions) raise privacy concerns for users and, even more so, for non-users but reduce willingness to disclose only for non-users. Thus, the present research suggests that not all competencies of a conversational AI are seen as merely positive, and the proposed differentiation of competencies is informative to explain effects on disclosure.

A neurocomputational theory of action regulation predicts motor behavior in neurotypical individuals and patients with Parkinson's disease.

Surviving in an uncertain environment requires not only the ability to select the best action, but also the flexibility to withhold inappropriate actions when the environmental conditions change. Although selecting and withholding actions have been extensively studied in both human and animals, there is still lack of consensus on the mechanism underlying these action regulation functions, and more importantly, how they inter-relate. A critical gap impeding progress is the lack of a computational theory that will integrate the mechanisms of action regulation into a unified framework. The current study aims to advance our understanding by developing a neurodynamical computational theory that models the mechanism of action regulation that involves suppressing responses, and predicts how disruption of this mechanism can lead to motor deficits in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. We tested the model predictions in neurotypical individuals and PD patients in three behavioral tasks that involve free action selection between two opposed directions, action selection in the presence of conflicting information and abandoning an ongoing action when a stop signal is presented. Our results and theory suggest an integrated mechanism of action regulation that affects both action initiation and inhibition. When this mechanism is disrupted, motor behavior is affected, leading to longer reaction times and higher error rates in action inhibition.

Augmented reality assisted assembly: An action regulation theory perspective on performance and user experience

The growing demand for personalized products is changing the manufacturing industry and requires flexible assembly instructions. In this context, augmented reality (AR)-based digital instructions represent a potential solution. However, empirical evidence of their effectiveness in terms of performance, user experience, and work experience remains fragmented and mixed. Moreover, theoretical arguments related to their effects are completely lacking. In this paper, we present the results of two studies conducted in a pilot factory that investigated the differences between a screen-based, a static AR-based, and an animated AR-based application. We found that task completion time was best in the animated AR condition and hedonic user experience was higher in the AR conditions than in the screen-based one. In addition, we discovered a loss of agency in the animated AR condition, represented through hesitant behavior regarding voice input. Based on the interview data, it became clear that users saw themselves in a passive role blindly executing. They transferred the authority originally assigned to them to the technology. As a result, users remained passive even though their action was required.Relevance to industry (25–50 words): When developing AR assistance for industrial work, the inherent design challenge is to develop the technology in a way that supports mental effort sufficiently to enhance performance while keeping the user in an active state. We formulate design implications as well as a theoretical frame to meet this challenge.

I can see the opportunity that you cannot! A nexus between individual entrepreneurial orientation, alertness, and access to finance

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to demonstrate how alertness enable small and medium scale enterprise (SME) owners to leverage their individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) such as risk-taking, pro-activity, innovation, passion and perseverance in a better way to recognize opportunities for financial resources as compared to their counterparts who are not alert. Moreover, it elaborates on the mediating role of opportunity recognition of financial resources between IEO and SMEs’ access to finance (AF).Design/methodology/approachA three-wave time-lagged survey from a stratified sample of 271 small and medium scale business owners in Pakistan was conducted and the data were analysed using PROCESS models 1 and 4.FindingsThe findings grounded in the theory of Action Regulation, signify that the IEO of small and medium scale business owners helps them attain financial resources through opportunity recognition capacity which is an action characteristic. Moreover, the IEO of SME owners, coupled with entrepreneurial alertness (EA; a cognitive pre-action state), amplifies their ability to recognize opportunities for financial resource availability.Originality/valueThis is one of the initial studies to test the IEO scale, including passion and perseverance. Moreover, it has added to the individual-level antecedents of AF in small and medium scale businesses through the role of EA and opportunity recognition.

Intervening to enhance proactivity for socialization: A longitudinal field experiment

ObjectivesThe purpose of the current study is to test the efficacy of the Proactivity Orientation Program (POP) in facilitating university freshmen's proactive socialization. Design/SettingA longitudinal field experiment was designed to test the hypotheses. Based on action regulation theory, the 8-h POP included training on developing goals, collecting information, generating and executing plans, and processing feedback. ParticipantsA total of 148 freshmen from a comprehensive university in China were randomly assigned to a control group (N = 74) or an experimental POP intervention group (N = 74). Main outcome measuresQuestionnaires regarding four proactive socialization behaviors (i.e., feedback seeking, relationship building with instructors, general socializing, and positive framing), social integration, and anxiety were administered. The Office of Educational Administration provided freshmen's GPAs for the first semester. ResultsCompared with those in the control group, freshmen in the POP group (a) reported more proactive socialization behaviors (i.e., feedback seeking, relationship building with instructors, general socializing, and positive framing), (b) experienced higher levels of social integration and lower levels of anxiety in the first three and four months after entering the university, and (c) had better academic performance for the first semester. Proactive socialization behaviors were found to mediate the POP's treatment effects on some of the adjustment outcomes. Furthermore, the intervention effects of the POP did not materialize immediately, but rather, emerged over time. ConclusionsThe findings provide preliminary support for the POP intervention in facilitating freshmen's proactive socialization behaviors and adjustment outcomes. Our findings also suggest the importance of proactivity for freshmen adjustment and academic success.

What to do when there is nothing to do? Toward a better understanding of idle time at work

Idle time at work is a phase of involuntary downtime during which employees experience that they cannot carry out their work tasks. In contrast to breaks, interruptions, procrastination, or withdrawal behavior, employees cannot work because of the absence of work-related tasks. Based on action regulation theory, we develop an integrative conceptual model on the antecedents and consequences of the subjective experience of idle time. We propose that work constraints (i.e., regulation problems) have negative effects on occupational well-being and task performance, and that these effects are mediated by subjective idle time. The strength of these effects is further assumed to be influenced by individuals’ use of proactive (i.e., prevention) and adaptive (i.e., coping) strategies. Results of a supplemental qualitative study, for which we interviewed 20 employees from different occupations, provided preliminary support for the propositions. Finally, we develop theory on how individual, situational, and organizational characteristics may influence the proposed effects on and of idle time. Overall, this conceptual development paper contributes to a better theoretical understanding of idle time at work by extending its definition and applying action regulation theory to this practically important phenomenon.

Deliberate practice and individual entrepreneurial orientation training retention: a multi-wave field experiment

ABSTRACT Individual entrepreneurial orientation training is a promising psychological intervention based on the Theory of Action Regulation that has contributed to the success of small business owners of developing countries. However, training transfer literature warns about the decay in trained behaviour and business outcomes over time. The factors that help in the maintenance of post-training effects are still not extensively researched leaving a huge question mark on acclaimed outcomes. We employed a rigorous combination of an experimental and longitudinal approach for testing the impact of individual entrepreneurial orientation training among 1189 small business owners (Training group = 587, Control group = 602) in Pakistan across multiple follow-up waves (T0 = before training, T1 = at training, T2 = 1 month after training, T3 = 6 months after training, T4 = 20 months after training). We specifically examined the role of deliberate practice development in post-training behaviour maintenance as well as the subsequent business success. Time-lagged mediation, growth modelling, and mediated moderation analyses were done. The findings revealed that though an individual’s entrepreneurial orientation behaviour declined after training, however, deliberate practice development enhanced its maintenance. Moreover, the small business owners who had a positive trend in the development of deliberate practice over measurement waves had higher success rates through the display of individual orientation behaviour.

Exploring the dynamics of protean career orientation, career management behaviors, and subjective career success: An action regulation theory approach

Due to increased dynamics in the world of work and the resulting responsibility of individuals to shape their careers more independently, there is an increased need to focus on the individual as an active agent in the development of a successful career. Drawing on action regulation theory, this four-wave longitudinal study investigates the dynamic relations between protean career orientation, engagement in career self-management behaviors, and subjective career success over time. Based on a sample of N = 574 German employees, we tested a random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to focus on within-person dynamics across four time-points while accounting for stable between-person differences. We found partial support for assumed dynamics in these variables, in that increases in protean career orientation predicted subsequent increases in career self-management behaviors. Moreover, increased protean career orientation and subjective career success (but not career self-management behaviors) predicted further increases in the same respective states. However, increases in career behaviors did not predict increases in subjective career success and increases in subjective career success did not predict increases in protean career orientation or career self-management behaviors. We discuss the findings in light of adopting a dynamic within-person approach to understand key career development constructs.

Being Alert Matters! A Sequential Interplay of Entrepreneurial Training and Business Outcomes

Recently the interest in argentic psychological factors promoting the small business sector is burgeoning. The scholarship in this field has called for not only developing the psychological traits in business owners but also to uncover the mechanisms through which these trainings influence training outcomes. To respond to this, we introduced individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) training based on Action Regulation Theory. Through a randomized controlled field experiment spanning 4 waves (T0= at the time of training, T1=6 months after training, T2=1 year after training, and T3= 2 years after training, each wave of 6 months apart); of 165 small business owners (training group=79, control group=86) in Pakistan, we found that individual entrepreneurial orientation training promotes the small business success. Moreover, we shed light on the serial mediating role of IEO behavior and opportunity exploitation in translating the training impacts into business outcomes. Lastly, we highlighted that individual action characteristics i.e., entrepreneurial alertness enables small business owners to be more efficient in opportunity exploitation after the individual entrepreneurial orientation training intervention. This study offers implications for entrepreneurial psychology, action-based training, and has practical takeaways for small business owners, trainers, and regulatory authorities.

Theorizing Lean Startup Principles: An Action Regulation Theory Perspective

The principles of the lean startup approach are increasingly gaining relevance in theory and practice. At the same time, key principles such as ‘pivoting’ and the ‘build-measure-learn cycle’ remain under-theorized. This hurts the clarity of these concepts and it hinders more effective use of them in practice. We tackle both of these issues in this article. First, we draw on action regulation theory to theorize both ‘pivoting,’ as well as the ‘build-measure-learn cycle.’ Subsequently, we build on this theorizing to develop theoretically grounded design principles. This article contributes to both theory and practice. First, theorizing the lean startup principles improves the clarity of the focal concepts and helps to understand why, for whom, and when they work. Second, the developed design principles contribute to the increasing body of design knowledge which provides scientifically grounded guidance for entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship educators.

Can planning prompt be a boon for impulsive customers? Moderating roles of product category and decisional procrastination

AbstractExtant research in the Impulse Buying domain has predominantly focused on how it can be enhanced and has mostly benefitted marketers. This study, however, shifts the focus to consumers and how they can mitigate or reduce impulse buying. Drawing on Action Regulation Theory, we posit that planning prompts mitigates impulse buying; and that this mitigating effect is stronger for individuals with high (vis‐à‐vis low) decisional procrastination as also for vice (vis‐à‐vis virtue) products. Hypotheses were tested using two studies conducted in India. Study 1 (n = 200) was conducted using a vignette‐based experiment in a hypothetical scenario while Study 2 (n = 200) was a field experiment conducted on consumers in a mall setting. Our research advances knowledge with regard to mitigating avoidable impulse buying and adds to extant research on planning prompts. We also document key theoretical and managerial implications of our findings.

Too fatigued to consume (ir)responsibly? The importance of work‐related fatigue and personal values for responsible consumption

AbstractResearch concerning the intention–behaviour gap in responsible consumption has assigned a crucial role to individuals’ situational states and personal values in purchase situations. Concurrently, work psychology research has demonstrated that on‐the‐job experiences carry over to one's private life. Combining insights from responsible consumption research and action regulation theory from work psychology, we investigated whether a fatigued state after work mediates the relationship between perceived daily workload and responsible consumption behaviour in the evening. Moreover, we hypothesized that personal values interact with work‐related fatigue in predicting responsible consumption behaviour. The data were collected through online surveys on four consecutive working days. The final sample consisted of 74 persons and 115 observations. To test our hypotheses, we used path analyses and controlled for the data structure. The results confirmed the predicted moderated mediation of environmentally responsible consumption; among the consumers who expressed high personal values in terms of the environment, a fatigued state was related to more responsible consumption. However, regarding socially responsible consumption focusing on fair production conditions, the results revealed a significant nonmoderated mediation. Our findings support the assumption that work experiences during the day affect responsible consumption behaviour in the evening, and thus, work should be given more consideration in consumer research. Further research is needed to specify the contextual factors leading to the positive relationship between fatigue and socially responsible consumption in terms of production conditions.

Linking conservation of resource perspective to personal growth initiative and intention to leave: role of mediating variables

PurposeThe present study intends to explore the underlying mechanism of the effect of personal growth initiative on employee engagement and intention to leave, in the presence of openness to experience and neuroticism as mediating variables. Support from conservation of resource theory and action regulation theory were taken to study the variables.Design/methodology/approachA time span of four months was taken to collect data from 382 employees belonging to hotel industry of Delhi NCR region of India. Structure equation model and mediation analysis were used in the present study.FindingsA positive association was found between personal growth initiative, engagement and openness to experience and a negative association was found between personal growth initiative, engagement, neuroticism and intention to leave. Openness to experience and neuroticism acted as partial mediators.Research limitations/implicationsThe researchers have collected the data only from service sector organizations. Hence, there is scope for a cross sectional, longitudinal and experimental intervention–based study to generalize the findings of the study. We also suggest to check the mediating effect of other constructs on the different aspects of well-being of employees at the workplace. Apart from it, if personal growth initiative among employees has a causal role to play for different outcomes, a meta-analysis based on the antecedents and consequences of personal growth initiative would be beneficial. It would further reveal many more insights and possible research themes.Practical implicationsOur results present significant practical implication for professionals engaged in day-to-day corporate affairs. As the managers at the workplace around the globe get heavily involved in decision making, and they are prone to observe negative information than the positive set of information, in the presence of both.Social implicationsWith the help of the study, society can be better conscious of literature related to personality, PGI and its outcome. This way, prospective professionals can understand the significance of personality along with PGI and harness their character accordingly. This would further contribute to prepare young professionals and also fill the supply demand skill gap in the industry and society at large. Any type of imbalance would harm the sustainability of the employment cycle in society.Originality/valueDue to limited literature available in management research on the topic, the researchers of the presented study selected personal initiative as the foundation of personal growth initiative. It has been seen that despite extensive work and interest of researchers, there is a difference in the concept and practice of employee turnover intentions. It is believed that research on human physiology and psychology affect the understanding about organizational research.