Self-esteem Theory Research Articles

An Exchange Theory of Money and Self-Esteem in Decision Making

This article addresses the relationship between money and self-esteem, both of which human beings desire. Money is used to purchase products. It may also indicate its owner's competence. Self-esteem is the subjective evaluation of the self, and people want to maintain their good self-image. The exchange between money and self-esteem may follow 3 principles: augmentation, substitution, and competition. A superior payoff augments utility of self-esteem. Money and self-esteem partially compensate for one another when an option contains an abundance of one type of utility and lacks the other. Money and self-esteem compete against each other when decision makers have to choose between the two. Empirical evidence has shown that meaning of money, situational need for money, self-esteem boost, and ego threat influence the exchange between money and self-esteem. The theory presented in this article bridges research in psychology and findings in economics and provides an integrative perspective on understanding human decision making.

Does self-threat promote social connection? The role of self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth.

Six studies examined the social motivations of people with high self-esteem (HSE) and low self-esteem (LSE) following a threat to a domain of contingent self-worth. Whether people desired social contact following self-threat depended on an interaction between an individual's trait self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth. HSE participants who strongly based self-worth on appearance sought to connect with close others following a threat to their physical attractiveness. LSE participants who staked self-worth on appearance wanted to avoid social contact and, instead, preferred a less interpersonally risky way of coping with self-threat (wanting to enhance their physical attractiveness). Implications for theories of self-esteem, motivation, and interpersonal processes are discussed.

Is high self-esteem a path to the White House? The implicit theory of self-esteem and the willingness to vote for presidential candidates

The implicit theory of self-esteem proposes that individuals with ostensibly higher levels of self-esteem will generally be viewed more positively than those with lower levels of self-esteem. The present studies examined whether the perceived self-esteem levels of the 2008 presidential candidates would influence the willingness of individuals to consider voting for these candidates. Across two studies, participants were generally more willing to consider voting for candidates who were perceived as possessing higher levels of self-esteem. The most interesting exception to this general pattern was that male democrats and female republicans were actually more willing to consider voting for Hillary Clinton when they believed she possessed lower levels of self-esteem. Results will be discussed in the context of the implicit theory of self-esteem.

When we feel good and bad about ourselves: Self-esteem memories across cultures

Young adults in the United States, Croatia, and China described personal episodes of times when they felt especially good or bad about themselves. These self-esteem memories were either recent (episodes that occurred during the previous 4 weeks) or remote (episodes that occurred between the ages of 10 and 15). Systematic content differences between memories of positive and negative self-worth were apparent primarily for remote rather than for recent memories. Across cultures, long-lasting positive memories frequently represented achievement themes, whereas negative memories frequently represented social themes. Links between achievement success and positive self-regard, and between social distress and negative self-regard, are explained using theories of self-esteem and autobiographical memory.

A Challenge of Living? Understanding the Psycho-social Processes of the Child During Primary-secondary Transition Through Resilience and Self-esteem Theories

The transition from primary to secondary school can be a period of anxiety for many children. Although most schools have developed systems to ease this process, it has been argued that the emphasis is often on administrative and organisational procedures. In contrast, children and parents are typically more concerned with personal and social issues. It may be that such concerns have received insufficient attention in the past. This paper employs theoretical perspectives from the literature on resilience and self-esteem to examine key aspects of the process of transition from the perspective of the individual child. It is argued that for some children at least, transition can be legitimately considered ‘a challenge of living’ because of the social and personal messages which are received from a range of experiences within a concentrated period of time. The nature and source of these messages are discussed, and some implications for practitioners suggested. It is argued that in order to help vulnerable individuals cope with, and even benefit from, the period of transition, we need to focus more on the way social and personal experiences are interpreted at this time.

The neural network model of organizational identification

This paper proposes the Neural Network Model of Organizational Identification; the model depicts organizational identification as an associative link within an organization member’s social knowledge structure of self as it relates to a focal organization. Within this knowledge structure, organization identification connects self to organization via an attribute sub-network that includes self-concept and organization identity and via a valance sub-network that includes organization based self-esteem and attitudinal commitment. This model draws on the principles of balance-congruity, imbalance dissonance, and differentiation [Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109, 3–25.] to predict relationships between these organizational constructs. The Neural Network Model of Organizational Identification is parsimonious yet it effectively integrates and synthesizes the burgeoning literature on organizational identification. By operating at a neural network level of analysis, the model departs substantially from existing organization models by (1) specifying unique construct definitions; (2) offering an alternative perspective of the affective/cognitive dimensions and interrelationships; (3) introducing the concept of implicit cognition to the literature on organizational identification, which makes apparent problems with current measures; and (4) explaining phenomena not explained in existing models. This perspective adds precision and reveals that organizational identification is interconnected within a reciprocal network of mutual causality.

Dominance and prestige as differential predictors of aggression and testosterone levels in men

The relationship between self-esteem and aggression has yielded mixed results and generated much recent debate in the social psychology literature. Based on an evolutionary-psychological theory of self-esteem, Kirkpatrick et al. [Kirkpatrick, L. A., Waugh, C. E., Valencia, A., Webster, G., 2002. The functional domain-specificity of self-esteem and the differential prediction of aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 825, 756–767] showed that multiple, functionally distinct self-esteem mechanisms predict aggression differentially: e.g., “self-perceived superiority” is positively related, and “social inclusion” inversely related, to behavioral aggression. The present study extends this research by further differentiating two distinct forms of “superiority,” dominance and prestige [Henrich, J., Gil-White, F. J. 2001. The evolution of prestige: Freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior 22, 165–196], in the prediction of aggression in men and women and testosterone levels (measured in saliva samples) in men. Dominance was positively related, but prestige was either unrelated or inversely related, to self-report aggression measures. Dominance was unrelated but prestige inversely related to testosterone levels in men, perhaps suggesting a method of testosterone inhibition in individuals attaining prestige-based superiority. In addition to contributing to the growing literature on the aggression–self-esteem link, the results provide validation for the prestige–dominance distinction and support, but also suggest an important refinement to, a theory of self-esteem as a collection of functionally distinct adaptations.

Predicting Intra-Individual Academic Achievement Trajectories of Adolescents Nested in Class Environment: Influence of motivation, implicit theory of intelligence, self-esteem and parenting

In a longitudinal study conducted on 1130 adolescents (557 male and 573 female) in the 1st-6th grades from Belgian secondary schools, we tested the influence of individual factors (motivational constructs, implicit theory of intelligence and self-esteem) and environmental determinants (parenting and class environment) of academic achievement (grades in mathematics, language arts and GPA at three points in time). Using hierarchical linear models, we observed a decrease of grade over the course of the study, reciprocal relations between motivational constructs, self-esteem and academic achievement, a strong positive impact of supportive parenting and a moderate influence of class environment.

A First Glimpse at Narcotics Offenders in an Islamic Republic

This study tests the efficacy of social control, differential association, social learning, and self-esteem theories as explanations for the variation in individual levels of illegal drug involvement among a sample of adult incarcerated drug offenders in Iran. The results of path analysis indicate that measures of differential association (with drug-involved peers) and self-esteem had significant direct effects on self-reported narcotics crimes, whereas attachment, belief, and family drug involvement were indirectly associated with variation in level of drug involvement. As a result of its sharply different cultural and religious contexts, Iran presents a unique case for the evaluation of theoretical models developed to explain offending in Western nations. Yet because of its political structure and ideological and religious sensitivity to drug use, there have been few published analyses of drug use and drug offenders in Iran, making this study one of the first of its kind in either Western or Persian-language journals.

The relationship between two‐dimensional self‐esteem and problem solving style in an anorexic inpatient sample

Research examining cognitive and behavioural determinants of anorexia is currently lacking. This has implications for the success of treatment programmes for anorexics, particularly, given the high reported dropout rates. This study examines two-dimensional self-esteem (comprising of self-competence and self-liking) and social problem-solving in an anorexic population and predicts that self-esteem will mediate the relationship between problem-solving and eating pathology by facilitating/inhibiting use of faulty/effective strategies. Twenty-seven anorexic inpatients and 62 controls completed measures of social problem solving and two-dimensional self-esteem. Anorexics scored significantly higher than the non-clinical group on measures of eating pathology, negative problem orientation, impulsivity/carelessness and avoidance and significantly lower on positive problem orientation and both self-esteem components. In the clinical sample, disordered eating correlated significantly with self-competence, negative problem-orientation and avoidance. Associations between disordered eating and problem solving lost significance when self-esteem was controlled in the clinical group only. Self-competence was found to be the main predictor of eating pathology in the clinical sample while self-liking, impulsivity and negative and positive problem orientation were main predictors in the non-clinical sample. Findings support the two-dimensional self-esteem theory with self-competence only being relevant to the anorexic population and support the hypothesis that self-esteem mediates the relationship between disordered eating and problem solving ability in an anorexic sample. Treatment implications include support for programmes emphasising increasing self-appraisal and self-efficacy.

Motivation for weight-loss diets: A clustering, longitudinal field study using self-esteem and self-determination theory perspectives

Background Gradual elevation of body weight leads numerous individuals to dieting and weight loss behaviours. Nevertheless, the prevalence of obesity continues to rise in industrialised countries. The examination of the motivational determinants of dietary modification (‘dieting’) in order to identify clusters of individuals in the first 6 months of their effort to control body weight was the aim of the current study. The theories of self-determination and self-esteem formation guided our analysis. Methods A longitudinal study was conducted with three data collection points (N1=256; N2=135; N3=75). Data were responses on the Treatment Self Regulation Questionnaire, Social Physique Anxiety Scale, Physical Self-Description Questionnaire, Kaiser Physical Activity Survey Questionnaire, and items assessing expectations of achievement and self-confidence. Results Cluster analyses provided stable and validated cluster profiles for all data sets. In the 1st and 2nd data sets, results revealed three groups of dieters labelled as ‘media victims’, ‘try to feel nice’ and ‘older and experienced’. For the 3rd data set, results supported a 4-group solution (‘less adaptive profile’, ‘second successful dieters’, ‘successful dieters’, and ‘unsuccessful dieters’). The need for autonomous versus controlling dieting reasons based on Self-Determination Theory, along with the need for an alternative paradigm in weight management, are proposed. Conclusions Psychological theories of self-determination and self-esteem provide important ways of understanding and identifying adaptive and less adaptive weight control strategies.

Tests of multiplicative models in psychology: A case study using the unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept.

Theories that posit multiplicative relationships between variables are common in psychology. A. G. Greenwald et al. recently presented a theory that explicated relationships between group identification, group attitudes, and self-esteem. Their theory posits a multiplicative relationship between concepts when predicting a criterion variable. Greenwald et al. suggested analytic strategies to test their multiplicative model that researchers might assume are appropriate for testing multiplicative models more generally. The theory and analytic strategies of Greenwald et al. are used as a case study to show the strong measurement assumptions that underlie certain tests of multiplicative models. It is shown that the approach used by Greenwald et al. can lead to declarations of theoretical support when the theory is wrong as well as rejection of the theory when the theory is correct. A simple strategy for testing multiplicative models that makes weaker measurement assumptions than the strategy proposed by Greenwald et al. is suggested and discussed.

Running for Their Lives: A Qualitative Analysis of the Exercise Experience of Female Recreational Runners

This study explores the relationship between self-cognitions and running behavior in a group of female recreational runners. Consistent with theories of self-esteem and exerciser self-schemata, it aims to identify how running can impact on the self, and how self-cognitions can influence motivation and adherence to running. In-depth interviews were conducted with 16 women of varying age, ability, and running experience who had entered a major women’s 10K race. Inductive data analysis revealed that there was a bi-directional relationship between running involvement and self-cognitions. Running provided experiences which led to enhanced self-esteem, notably through perceived improvements to the physical self, but also through increases in mastery/achievement and physical competence. These changes contributed to the value of running for the women, strengthened their exercise self-schema, and increased the likelihood of adherence to running. However, family responsibilities constrained the women in their ability to run, impacting on the exercise-self relationship outlined.

自尊感情に関する運動心理学研究

Self-esteem has been regarded as an important element of quality of life (QOL), health-related QOL (HRQL), and psychological well-being within educational, clinical, and health programs. Additionally, self-esteem enhancement is a common objective of physical education and exercise programs. This paper reviews some theoretically-based studies examining the multidimensional and hierarchical self-esteem model in the domain of exercise psychology, and discusses how these findings may guide the design and application of exercise interventions. Recent advances in the theory and measurement of self-esteem are described, including the concept of multidimensionality and hierarchical structuring. The hierarchical model proposed by Fox and Cotbin (1989) and the exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM) proposed by Sonstroem and Morgan (1989) are explained. Use of these models is recommended as a theoretical framework for research on exercise and self-esteem. In addition, the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP) and the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ) are used to assess the model. The PSPP and the PSDQ can be regarded as well-established, reliable and well-validated instruments. This review also summarizes research examining the effect of exercise on self-esteem and the structure of the multidimensional and hierarchical self-esteem model. This research shows that participation in physical activity is related to improvements in physical self-worth and global self-esteem. Finally, several shortcomings within the former literature as well as implications for future study are described. It is hoped that this review will provide new insights and highlight important directions for future investigation.

Behavioral and self-reported aggression as a function of domain-specific self-esteem

On the basis of a domain-specific theory of self-esteem, it was hypothesized that functionally distinct domains of self-esteem would predict aggression differentially. Participants completed self-report measures of self-perceived superiority, mate value, social inclusion, and global self-esteem, as well as of aggression. Self-assessed mate value emerged as a reliable, positive predictor, and social inclusion as a reliable inverse predictor, of self-reported hostility and aggression. In a subsequent laboratory experiment, in which participants had an opportunity to aggress against the source of positive or negative feedback about a personal essay that they had written, mate value again predicted increased aggression, whereas global self-esteem predicted decreased aggression. These main effects were moderated by the feedback manipulation, such that their respective simple effects were only present among participants that received negative feedback. Aggr. Behav. 00:1–11, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Practitioner Beware! A Critical Reflection on the Theoretical Assumptions that Inform Practice

Underpinning the practice of career counsellors is a range of various theories and perspectives. The concept of self-esteem is a term frequently used by those in the helping professions and often with little regard for its limitations. This article argues that careers counsellors need to keep up-to-date with evolving theories that inform their practice. The theory of self-esteem has been much researched-instruments have been developed to ‘measure’ self-esteem, which have little validity and grave weaknesses in assumed links between self-esteem and social behaviour. Theories of self-efficacy and learned helplessness are offered as alternative theories on which career counsellors may base their approach. Again the caution is sounded, career counsellors need to be prepared to constantly review the theories that we base our practice on, in the light of new research and understanding.

ATHLETES' ATTRIBUTIONS FOR TEAM PERFORMANCE: A THEORETICAL TEST ACROSS SPORTS AND GENDERS

This study investigated reasons that men and women college athletes gave for their teams' performances. Different predictions drawn from ego-serving bias theory (Miller & Ross, 1975), self-esteem theory (Dittes, 1959; Jones, 1973), and cognitive consistency theory (Festinger, 1957; Heider, 1958) were tested. Across three studies, men and women basketball players, and men football players responded to a measure of self-esteem and an attribution measure of internality/externality following team wins and losses. Results across the studies provided strong support for ego-serving bias theory. However, gender differences were observed in that the ego-serving tendency to internalize wins to a greater extent than losses was not significantly present for women basketball players as compared to men basketball and football players. Additionally, results provided partial support for cognitive consistency theory, while failing to support self-esteem theory.

Converging Toward an Integrated Theory of Self-Esteem: Reply to Crocker and Nuer (2004), Ryan and Deci (2004), and Leary (2004).

Converging Toward an Integrated Theory of Self-Esteem: Reply to Crocker and Nuer (2004), Ryan and Deci (2004), and Leary (2004).

Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Distress: The Role of Personal and Ethnic Self-Esteem.

The present study aimed to draw on 2 theoretical models to examine the relationship between perceived ethnic discrimination and psychological distress in a sample of ethnic minority young people (N=154). Analysis provided no support for the hypothesis derived from the self-esteem theory of depression that self-esteem (personal and ethnic) moderates the discrimination-distress relationship. There was, however, partial support for a mediating role of self-esteem, as predicted by the transactional model of stress and coping. This mediational relationship was moderated by gender, such that both forms of self-esteem exerted a mediating role among men but not women. The authors consider the implications of their findings for theory and future research examining the consequences of discrimination on psychological well-being.

Social approval and trait self-esteem

Interpersonal theories of self-esteem that tie self-esteem to perceptions of one’s acceptability to other people suggest that self-evaluations should predict global self-esteem to the degree to which an individual believes that a particular attribute is important for social approval. In the present study, participants completed a measure of global self-esteem, rated themselves in five domains, and indicated how important those domains were for approval or disapproval. The results showed that, in four of five domains, the interaction between self-evaluations and the perceived approval-value of that domain aided in the prediction of global self-esteem. Generally, for participants who rated themselves positively in a domain, those who believed that the domain was important in affecting social approval or disapproval had higher self-esteem than those who did not believe it would influence acceptability.