Christian Theology Research Articles

Paradoxical thinking as a way of solving theoretical problems

An awareness of the need for paradoxical justification of content thought first came to the Christian theologian Quintus Septimius Florence Tertulian, who lived in Carthage from 160 to 220 AD. In the controversy against abstract theoretical reason, he insisted on the importance of the “organic” practical reason, opposite to theoretical, the idea of which he associated with his paradoxical organization. The peculiarity is this organization of the mind that would allow it to avoid the emergence of problems in the form of a clash of opposing opinions, which Aristotle associated with the need for self-justification of its content. However, to bring it to the consciousness of the scientific community that self-justification of the conceivable follows be considered as a way of solving theoretical problems, requiring the exclusion of thinking from the logic of theoretical reasoning and reorienting it to a strict opposition to the Logos required the efforts of the geniuses of Antiquity and the Renaissance, as well as the best minds of the New time. In the process of searching for a mechanism for realizing self-justification, a paradox was considered a promising construct that posed the subject before the need to understand the object of comprehension based on simultaneously two incompatible, mutually justifying each other logician: the logic of his understanding that has become familiar and other logic into which thinking dissatisfied with its previous reasoning, literally “pushed out” the object of unrealized own cognitive efforts. Enrichment of thinking due to two opposing definitions of the concept object of comprehension ensured the acquisition of new knowledge, inaccessible each logically formed thinking separately and was achieved through the complementary dialogue of two logically incompatible logic justifications. The fundamental possibility of such a dialogue stimulated by the subject setting a task for himself as a situation requiring him to take a certain action in conditions where it is necessary to “find” something “unknown in principle”, the idea of which is what is “given” in a problem is based only on the awareness of the existence some unstructured set of empirical and devoid of any -certain contours and landmarks of its manifestations, which It is impossible to subsume it under any concept or any known theory. This led to the formulation of the “unknown in principle” into the concept of “unknown the “sought” that the task requires “to find.” In the face of uncertainty what needs to be “found”, what is sought is no longer the most “unknown in principle”, but the way of searching for it, resulting in the idea of this very unknown and the definition of its concept directly depend on what is found way of understanding it. Realization of mental action in conditions uncertainty of what is sought is carried out using operating component of thinking, which, using as its own means dialectical-logical concepts and triadic inferences, carries out a categorically unacceptable combination of opposing judgments. This connection, in accordance with the provision on “reflecting the properties of an object in principle of action”, leaves for the categorical component of thinking only a function of the source of the initial premises that are subject to reorganization. As a result of this reorganization, the idea of what needs to be “found” was gradually refined in the process of improving the search method, and its the concept reaches its utmost clarity only after the final complete search. The found method makes sense of the “unknown” sought” in the plane of problematic-dialogical reality, thereby revealing most its own content through a gradual transition from the definition the concept of thinking as “paradoxical”, given to it from a logical point of view, to the definition of his concept as “dialogical”, which corresponds to his natural design. In the process of making this transition the “unknown sought after” gradually becomes known due to the fact that it signs are combined in the process of this transition into a single thought based on which is the logic of the dialogue of two logics or dialogics. Picture of theory of thinking, built based on problem-dialogical it organization, involves the introduction of the concepts of “paradox”, “dialogic,” and “dialogical thinking” into its categorical system, starting with paradoxical design of the initial category with subsequent paradoxical formulation of its theoretical provisions in the form of species and subspecific dialectical-logical concepts, which will theoretically allow justifiably, using as psychological tools of thinking triadic inferences, to cognize the object of comprehension in all its completeness and internal inconsistency. Proposed theoretical understanding an object that is “unknown in principle” raises its understanding above the functional level of finding its place in a separate concept or paradigmatic model and opens up the prospect of objectification at the meta-paradigmatic level in a ompletely exhausted categorical methodological completeness.

Familial and religious ethnic-racial socialization in promoting activism among Asian American Christians.

The adversity faced by Asian Americans (AAs) due to discrimination is a testament to the ongoing fight for human rights. At the crux of social activism, familial and religious ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) instills cultural values, ethnic identity, belonging to one's racial group, and a meaningful outlook, navigating generations through these challenges. This study examined the role of family and religion in amplifying social advocacy among AAs by assessing the relationship between race-related stress and social activism, as well as the mediating role of familial and religious ERS via a parallel mediation. Our research, utilizing a cross-sectional, nonexperimental design, involved 254 AA emerging adults identifying as Christian (Mage = 29.06, SDage = 7.55), sourced from Prolific (n = 203) and community sampling (n = 51). Linear regression findings revealed significant positive associations between familial ERS and social action (β = .226, p < .001), as well as religious ERS and social action (β = .085, p = .033). Nevertheless, parallel mediation analysis through bootstrapping demonstrated that neither familial nor religious ERS fully mediated the effects of race-related stress on social activism. These results underscore the significance of applying culturally imbued insights from different contexts to address discrimination within the AA Christian community. Scrutinizing these pathways can safeguard AA Christians, while promoting the amalgamation of Christian theology and psychological science. Future research should address the spectrum of beliefs and practices within Christianity that intersect with AA families and culture, unraveling the foundations of the call for social action. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Challenges of Migration: Xenophobia and Discrimination from the Perspective of Orthodox Christian Theology

Although our country has so far been bypassed by an aggressive phenomenon of migration, as has been happening for several decades in the West, nevertheless, in recent years, more and more emigrants from various countries with severe economic problems (Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Syria, Afghanistan, etc.) emigrated or were brought under employment contracts, to work in different fields of activity: construction, delivery, sanitation and others. The lack of local labour force, the majority of which emigrated, in turn, to the countries of the European Union, contributed significantly. This phenomenon comes with a series of challenges related to xenophobia, discrimination, racism, exploitation, abuse or even violence, generated by differences in mentality, culture, national identity or religion. From the perspective of the Orthodox Christian faith, we must address these challenges, referring to the landmarks we find in the Holy Scriptures and in patristic literature, trying to find those bridges of communication that could solve these problems.

God, Philosophers and Theologians in Africa

There is renewed interest in philosophical and theological investigations about God, religions and the implications of religious beliefs among philosophers and theologians in Africa. This development is itself profitable because the question or the problem of God is a relevant discourse in Africa where the majority of people are theists. However, unlike the exploration of the first-generation African scholars—philosophers and theologians—whose primary objective was to show the symmetry between Christianity and African Traditional Religions (ATR), contemporary discourses arise within the clamour for decoloniality. The investigations, with varied emphasis, advocate the decolonisation of the concept of God, epistemic decolonisation, decolonisation of Christianity and African Christian theology, etc. In this essay, I critically examine the contemporary decolonial discourse about God, divine attributes, religious belief, and the relationship between African Christian theology and ATR. I argue that most of the contemporary literature is entangled in conceptual convolution and as such, there is a lack of clarity about what needs to be decolonised. Put differently, most works do not clearly distinguish between reality (the person or phenomenon “God”), thought (the concept “God”), and conceptions of God (language, that is, the terms and images used in making assertions about God). Further, I argue that when conceptual clarifications are adequately attended to, there is no need for decolonisation of discourses about God, divine nature, divine attributes, and the relationship between Christianity and ATR.

Dialogue and Conservative Religious Thought

Abstract This paper explores the dynamic interplay between Christianity and the Roman Empire as articulated by Tertullian, a prominent figure in early Christian theology. Tertullian delves into the complex relationship between the burgeoning Christian faith and the established structures of the Roman Empire, highlighting the inherent tension between the two. Central to his analysis is the concept of dialogue, wherein Tertullian examines how Christians engage with the broader Roman society while maintaining their distinct religious identity. Furthermore, he discusses the conservative nature of Christian thought, emphasizing the preservation of core beliefs amidst external pressures. This paper provides insights into Tertullian’s perspective on the delicate balance between dialogue and the preservation of Christian values within the context of the Roman Empire.

Kebangkitan Orang Mati (Daniel 12:1-4)

In the Christian context, the resurrection of the dead is based on the resurrection of Jesus Christ after the crucifixion, which forms the basis of the Christian faith that all people will experience resurrection at the end of time to face the final judgment. In the Old Testament, death is understood as the separation between body and spirit. After we die, our bodies will decompose and become soil again while the spirit will leave our bodies for the afterlife, also known as Sheol. There is also a belief in the resurrection of the dead, which is the physical return of the body from the dead. This belief is reflected in books such as Daniel and Isaiah, which state that at the end of time, God will raise the dead to eternal life or eternal punishment. This concept of resurrection affirms the belief in divine justice and restoration, where each person will receive reward or punishment according to their deeds. In Christian theology, the resurrection of the dead provides hope for eternal life as well as complete redemption, and simultaneously reminds the faithful of the importance of living righteously and faithfully to God's teachings.

Is everyone traumatized? Perspectives from an Indonesian convent

AbstractWhat if we took trauma to be a fundamental aspect of human existence? Prominent in some strands of popular psychology, this is also the stance taken by an eastern Indonesian order of Catholic nuns who “dig up” their hearts as part of a continual process of self‐formation. Set against a backdrop of Christian theologies of discernment, state concerns for human development, and local resonances of ritual sacrifice, nuns learn to interpret their childhoods as harmed by emotional trauma sustained in the company of kin. Once excavated, this trauma must be addressed in the convent through conscious efforts of mutual care, making trauma a moral category that creates new forms of subjectivity. Through acts of acknowledgment and support, the idiom of trauma makes the company surrounding a nun directly responsible for her self‐formation. This article is about the ways Indonesian Catholic nuns conceptualize trauma as something that all humans sustain, how it grounds self‐becoming, and how its causes—and cures—are rooted in the company of other people. I suggest that their experiences highlight the sociality of trauma more broadly and argue that trauma is one articulation of how people become themselves in the company of others.

Participatie als nederige ontologie

Protestant/Reformed theology usually does not hold participation, the Platonic-Christian metaphysical framework that undergirds a doctrine of theosis, in high regard. This article defends participation, finds it attractive and, in fact, an unavoidable traditionalChristian account of the relationship between God and the world, not strange to the Reformed tradition. This doctrine moves individual soteriological concerns into the wider orbit of God’s being, the nature of creation, and humanity. The article argues thatalthough participation is rooted in Platonism as a spiritual philosophy, it was fundamentally altered by the Jewish-Christian tradition. It explores the different ways in which the Christian tradition tried to do justice to the difference between God and creation in a participatory sense. It continues to show how the Reformed theologian Herman Bavinck’s dogmatics adopts the participatory theological-metaphysical framework as a matter of received wisdom of the tradition. The article closes with recognizing three characteristics of a participatory ontology that suggest it is sound Christian theology.

Violence in the Religious Language of Christianity: Historical Analysis of Christian Religious Language Containing Violence as a Source of Critical Theology

Historical fact indicates that the religious language of Christianity is rife with violence. The spiritual language is echoed in such bloody tragedies as war, murder, and punishment. This study aimed to encourage Christianity to understand violent religious language by viewing it in a reflective frame. The study uses qualitative methods to analyze history, so the literature that records the incidents of Christianity's involvement in violence is used. Analysis of the various literature produced two essential things as critical reflections on Christian theology. Based on historical facts of Christianity's involvement in violence, Christianity was at one time in a phase creating its doctrine (violence is not God's will), and Christianity played God (God did not engage in violence). That discovery is supposed to be part of a critical vehement from a violent point of view.

Interdependency and Change: God in the Chinese Theology of Xie Fuya (1892–1991)

Xie Fuya (1892–1991), a major Chinese Christian thinker, has contributed much to the development of Sino-theology. However, his work has yet to receive the recognition it deserves. As a thinker who is well-versed in both Chinese and Western philosophies while dedicating himself to the exploration of the philosophy of religion, Xie presents a dual feature in his writings. On the one hand, his work engages in a dialogical discourse between Eastern and Western philosophies. On the other hand, his writings represent an ambitious attempt to interpret traditional Chinese philosophical tenets within the context of Christian theology, transverse from the level of human nature to the level of ontological existence, representing an innovative model of contemplation in the field of Sino-theology. This contribution is of immense value to the development of Chinese philosophical thought. For this reason, this article attempts to illustrate, through Xie’s writings in various stages of his life, his relentless effort to promote the integration of Eastern and Western philosophies within the framework of Chinese thought. His most notable accomplishment in this East–West confluence effort is his unique assumption of God’s attributions as both zhonghe (literally “middle harmony”, connoted as interdependency by Xie) and bianyi (change).

Christian Theological Education and Discipleship

Christian Theological Education and Discipleship

Theological Intersections: Newman’s ‘Primacy of God’ in Modern Church Discourse

This article critically examines the Catholic–Anglican theological dialogue, centering on John Henry Newman’s ‘Primacy of God’, Catholic synodality, and Anglican comprehensiveness. It illuminates the interconnectedness of these elements, revealing their potential to enhance ecumenical conversations. Newman’s concept of communal faith and divine primacy resonates across both traditions, advocating a transformative, experiential spiritual journey. This study juxtaposes Newman’s stance on ecclesiastical authority and doctrinal development with contemporary synodal movements in the Catholic Church, paralleled by Anglican practices like the Lambeth Conferences. This comparison underscores a mutual commitment to participatory governance and theological inclusivity. Ultimately, the study envisions a unified Christian theology, fostering dialogue enriched by diverse traditions and promoting a harmonious convergence within the Christian theological spectrum.

„Civilis, non tyrannica dominatio” (Tert. Apol. 2.14.)

In the first three centuries of the existence of Christianity, it was exposed to sporadic and then increasingly organized persecution by the authorities of the Roman Empire. All of the Christian apologists emphasized the illegality of these persecutions. Tertullian, the jurist, who worked under Septimius Severus, emphasized that the Roman Empire is a state of law, not a tyrannical rule, and this law did not allow the execution of innocents. Although the number of Christians continued to grow despite the persecutions – in Carthage, for example, at the end of the 3rd century, one in ten inhabitants of the city declared themselves to be Christians – it seems that they resigned themselves to the constant oppression. In the Apologeticum, Tertullian lists three possible forms of resistance: internal disruption, open armed rebellion, or mass emigration, but he considers them both unjust and impracticable. According to him, the persecutions were approved by God in order to purify his Church. At the same time, there is also an eschatological reason why they did not stand against the tyrannical oppression: some Christian theologians interpreted the statement in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 about the “one who now holds it back” (niv) or “he who now restrains it” (esv), viz. who prevents the appearance of the Antichrist as being the Roman Empire or the emperor itself. If the current emperor falls, the Empire itself will collapse, and the “ten kings” will come, who will be the direct forerunners of the Antichrist. This is why Christians honour the emperors and they do not oppose them by force even if they are sent to death by the imperial authorities.

Pengharapan Akan Kedatang Yesus Kembali Di Dunia Ini

The hope in the return of Jesus Christ is a central concept in Christian theology that has been a source of comfort, strength, and motivation for Christians for centuries. This concept refers to the belief that Jesus Christ, as the son of God, will return to this world to complete his plan of salvation and begin a new era marked by justice, peace, and eternity. This abstract provides a brief overview of the hope in Jesus' return, including its theological foundations in the Bible, various theological interpretations, and its practical implications for personal life and the Christian community. Through understanding this hope, Christians are given a call to live in faithfulness, obedience, and constant preparation, and to share the message of salvation with my world. The hope of the return of Jesus Christ is not only the focus of worship and spiritual reflection, but also the driving force for just social action and comprehensive love in a world filled with suffering and need.

Prespektif Filsafat Kristen Tentang Eksistensi Allah

The existence of God is something that humans have always questioned. Humans rely on reason and knowledge to find out about the existence of God, even though humans have never found certainty about the existence of God. So various human assumptions about God arose, that God never existed, and some people denied and denied the existence of God. Even though humans engage in various studies, it is impossible for humans to fully understand and know the existence of God, because God is transcendent and unlimited, while humans are immanent or limited. Therefore, in writing this article, the author looked at it from a philosophical perspective based on Christian faith to answer several questions: Is it true that God does not exist? Is God just a human imagination? Many people, especially certain groups who do not believe in the existence of God, think that anyone who believes in the existence of God is a fool. This article discusses theological concepts and Christian philosophical thought, using arguments used to prove the inseparable existence of God from the perspective of Christian faith. Philosophy has long been a means of understanding and exploring the existence of God in various Christian traditions. The author presents several philosophical arguments used by Christian theologians to support belief in the existence of God, and also discusses the contribution of thought leadership of Christian philosophers in forming views on the existence of God. From a philosophical perspective, this article offers a deeper understanding of how the Christian faith views the existence of God and how philosophy can play a role in strengthening those beliefs. Finally, this article provides an overview of how to study philosophy to understand and reflect on the existence of God, especially within the framework of Christianity.

Gabriel Vázquez and the moral rehabilitation of hatred

Abstract Thomas Aquinas and most Christian theologians after him asserted that it is improper to attribute hatred to God. In 1598 the Jesuit theologian Gabriel Vázquez intrepidly argued that God can hate – not only with hatred of abomination but also with inimical hatred. Vázquez's surprising innovation is best explained in the context of the theological disputes between Jesuits and Dominicans on justification. Specifically, Vázquez is elaborating on the idea found in the Council of Trent that justification is a transition from enmity to friendship requiring a real change in the person being justified. He did so to counter views among Dominican theologians that this interior renewal could be in some way operated by God from the outside by way of a reconceptualisation of the sinner or a reevaluation of the value of his meritorious actions. These polemics drove Vázquez to rely on a robust, realist picture of friendship, based on the idea that affections must fit real qualities.

A Priestly Christology: A Biblical-Theological Investigation of Christ’s Priesthood

The concept of Christ’s Priesthood has been the subject of comprehensive research work in recent times. Despite several attempts to investigate the doctrine of Christ’s Priesthood waves a theological enigma. Thus, the study delved into the concept of Christology as denoted in the Scripture. This scholarly analysis focused on the qualities, which are linked to atonement and mediation. Christian theology has various viewpoints, but the primary model connects the sacrifice of Christ to His role as intercessor. The ontological model was a theological framework that stresses Christ’s priesthood on His personality and activities. The sacramental priesthood model denotes a correlation between Christ’s sacrificial act and His intercession in a heavenly realm, with distinct aspects following a predetermined sequence. The functional priesthood model is based on classical Protestant theology which portrays that the sacrifice of Christ and mediation are intrinsically interconnected with His being. The study employed a biblical-theological approach that sought to address the prevailing debates concerning Christ’s Priesthood. Thus, the study injects relevant sources to formulate and build the Christological concept. The research paper opined a holistic understanding of the nature of Christ and His transformative power to redeem humanity through the unction of the Holy Spirit. It is crystal clear that Christ sacrificed Himself to atone for all humankind’s sins. More importantly, the paper contributes to the current exploration of Priestly Christology, thus fostering a deeper understanding of Christ’s Priesthood and its significance to contemporary biblical theological discussion. It also helps to lay bare the salvific value of ecclesiology. This paper is recommended for biblical-theological historical students to advance and improve their studies. Keywords: Priestly Christology, Biblical-Theological, Evaluation, Christ’s Priesthood

Luciferův efekt a křesťanská teologie

Luciferův efekt a křesťanská teologie

Christianity and Rationalism:

Maximus the Confessor and René Descartes were influential thinkers in their respective historical and philosophical contexts, but their philosophical orientations and concerns were distinct. Maximus was primarily a Christian theologian who integrated faith and reason within a theological framework, while Descartes was a key figure in the development of modern philosophy, emphasizing individual reason and scepticism as foundational elements of his philosophical system. This paper aims to present some aspects of their philosophy and try to find common ground in their thought.

THE CONFLUENCE BETWEEN CHRISTIANITY AND NEOPLATONISM: TRIADOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

Was Christianity Hellenized or was philosophy Christianized? It is a dilemma that has sparked numerous discussions and conflicting opinions to this day. This debate revolves mainly around the metaphysics of Greek philosophy, which left Christianity with its entire conceptual arsenal. The close relationship between philosophy and religion in Plotinus' time explains why many philosophers engaged in religion and ethics, but also why many Christian theologians perceived theology as the highest form of philosophy. Viewed contextually, the philosophy of Plotinus, having rich elements of mysticism and definition of divinity, can be considered a true religion.