Population In Thailand Research Articles

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices about tuberculosis and choice of communication channels in Thailand.

The aim of this study was to assess tuberculosis (TB) knowledge, attitudes, and practices in both the general population and risk groups in Thailand. In a cross-sectional survey, a general population (n = 3,074) and family members of a TB patient (n = 559) were randomly selected, using stratified multistage sampling, and interviewed. The average TB knowledge score was 5.7 (maximum = 10) in the Thai and 5.1 in the migrant and ethnic minorities general populations, 6.3 in Thais with a family member with TB, and 5.4 in migrants and ethnic minorities with a family member with TB. In multivariate linear regression among the Thai general population, higher education, higher income, and knowing a person from the community with TB were all significantly associated with level of TB knowledge. Across the different study populations, 18.6% indicated that they had undergone a TB screening test. Multivariate logistic regression found that older age, lower education, being a migrant or belonging to an ethnic minority group, residing in an area supported by the Global Fund, better TB knowledge, having a family member with TB, and knowing other people in the community with TB was associated having been screened for TB. This study revealed deficiencies in the public health knowledge about TB, particularly among migrants and ethnic minorities in Thailand. Sociodemographic factors should be considered when designing communication strategies and TB prevention and control interventions.

Species in wildlife trade: socio-economic factors influence seahorse relative abundance in Thailand

Unsustainable wildlife trade negatively impacts wild populations of traded species. Thus to assess these population impacts and manage trade, we need to find and characterize extant populations. Seahorses are one of the most heavily traded marine animals, with almost 6 million individuals exported worldwide annually. Thailand, the top exporter, is responsible for 88% of global export volumes of dried seahorses. Here, we sought to locate seahorse hotspots in Thailand - places where seahorses are still abundant, and elucidate predictors of these hotspots. Because seahorses have economic value, we included socio-economic parameters in addition to environmental parameters. From underwater surveys, 46 seahorses from three species were spotted at 13 of 46 sites, with Hippocampus spinosissimus most commonly observed. The highest seahorse densities were found off Chonburi province within the Gulf of Thailand. Seahorse density and presence were not significantly associated with habitat type, while access to market was the strongest predictor. Seahorses were less abundant in areas with a seahorse market, presumably because proximate seahorse resources in these areas are attractive commodities to extract for fishers. Intense fishing activity has already greatly impacted seahorse populations in Thailand, potentially obscuring natural habitat preferences and leading to population declines. For heavily traded species whose natural populations are already impacted, human processes may have a stronger effect on species distribution than habitat type or quality. Beyond identifying and protecting suitable habitats, the preservation of seahorse populations depends on changing human behavior in interacting with seahorses and the strict enforcement of existing fishing regulations.

Provincial alcohol index and its relationship to alcohol-related harm in Thailand: implications for subnational alcohol policy development.

BackgroundThe Provincial Alcohol Index (PAI) is one of the efforts to develop a composite measurement to operationalize the situation of alcohol consumption and related risk behaviors. The index offers a means for national and subnational alcohol control committees to address alcohol-related problems in their responsible jurisdiction areas. The objective of this study is to assess the relationship between PAI scores and alcohol-related problems using Thailand as an example.MethodsCross-sectional analyses of PAI scores based on the 2007 National Cigarette Smoking and Alcohol Drinking Behavior Survey (CSAD) and the National Statistical Office data were conducted. CSAD data were collected from 168,285 Thai residents aged 15 years and above in 76 provinces of Thailand (population range 180,787 to 5,716,248). The PAI scores were generated using three different methods based on five indicators: 1) prevalence of adult (≥15 years) drinkers, 2) prevalence of underage drinkers, 3) proportion of regular drinkers, 4) proportion of binge drinkers and 5) proportion of drink-drivers. Alcohol-related injuries and violent events together with provincial level covariates (age, gender, income and region) were assessed. Correlational and linear regression analyses were performed to examine the relationship between PAI scores and alcohol-related problems.ResultsThe PAI scores generated from the three methods were significantly correlated with one another (r > 0.7, p < 0.05) and significantly related to alcohol-related problems after adjusting for the provincial level covariates. Based on the normalized method, PAI scores had a significant and positive relationship with prevalence of alcohol-related injuries (beta = 562 cases per million population, p = 0.027) and violence (beta = 451 events per million population, p = 0.013). PAI scores were highest in the north and lowest in the south of the country.ConclusionsThe findings of this study illustrate the relationship between the PAI and alcohol-related problems. The PAI scores can be used to benchmark the alcohol situation across jurisdiction areas. Future studies are suggested to develop a scale to measure subnational alcohol policy performances.

Cultural dimensions and moral reasoning: a comparative study

Purpose – Moral reasoning research in Western cultures is grounded primarily in Kohlbergian cognitive moral theory. Enumerable investigations about the psychological determinants and cultural dimensions of moral reasoning have provided significant insights about Western decision making and contributed to Western organizational behavioral theory. However, inquiry about these same constructs and how they may interact with moral reasoning in non-Western Southeast Asian trading partner countries has not provided comparable insights. The purpose of this paper is to remedy that by comparing predominant cultural dimensions to levels of moral reasoning in student and graduate populations in Thailand and the USA. Design/methodology/approach – The Defining Issues Test (DIT) measurement of moral reasoning (Rest et al., 1999) and the Values Survey Module (VSM) 2013 (Hofstede and Minkov, 2013) were translated for the first time into Thai, pilot tested, and used to gather cultural and moral reasoning data in Thailand. The same English version instruments were used to gather comparable data among similarly matched US samples. Comparisons are presented in this paper, and differences in approaches to moral decision making are discussed. Findings – Findings indicate that there are both significant psychological and cultural differences between the two nations that affect moral reasoning. Predominant status quo moral reasoning predominates in Thailand, while a polarity between self-interest moral reasoning and higher level abstract idealistic moral reasoning predominates in the USA. Potential cultural influences on these moral reasoning tendencies are discussed. Research limitations/implications – While findings can be generalized to the sample populations of Thai and US undergraduate students and graduate students who are in the workplace, the considerable time required to complete the two survey instruments precluded inclusion of higher level, veteran managers and public policy administrators in the study. Alternative survey methods need to be developed for investigating these subjects in order to make the combined findings more robust and widely generalizable. Practical implications – Careful attention to cultural and linguistic variables provided for thorough and effective first-time translations of the DIT and the VSM 2013 from English into the Thai language. These two instruments are now available to other researchers who wish to investigate cultural dimensions and moral reasoning through other research designs. The Thai-version DIT can be obtained from the copyright holder, Center for the Study of Ethical Development (http://ethicaldevelopment.ua.edu/). The Thai-version of the VSM can be obtained through the Geert Hofstede website (www.geerthofstede.nl/). Social implications – These findings can help researchers in Western and non-Western countries to better understand the foundations upon which moral reasoning in the two countries is grounded, and can provide insights about how individuals in quite different cultures perceive ethical dilemmas in the workplace and public arena and attempt to solve them. The findings also serve as another entry point for business managers and public policy administrators to not only better understand organizational behavior as regards ethical decision making, but general decision making as well. Originality/value – This is the first research study comparing cultural dimensions identified by Geert Hofstede and Michael Minkov as measured by the VSM 2013 to moral reasoning as measured by the DIT.

Phase 3 study of first-line crizotinib vs pemetrexed−cisplatin/carboplatin (PCC) in East Asian patients (pts) with ALK+ advanced non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

9058Background: The phase 3 study PROFILE 1014 showed a superior outcome of crizotinib over PCC in ALK+ NSCLC. A phase 3 study of similar design (ongoing; NCT01639001) was conducted in an East Asian population in China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Thailand. Methods: The study was designed to detect an improvement in median PFS from 6.4 to 10 mo with 80% power and 1-sided type I error of 0.025. Between Sep 2012 and Jul 2014, 207 pts with previously untreated ALK+ advanced NSCLC were randomized 1:1 (stratification: ECOG PS 0/1 vs 2) to receive crizotinib 250 mg PO BID (n = 104) or pemetrexed 500 mg/m2 with either cisplatin 75 mg/m2 or carboplatin AUC 5–6, IV q3w for ≤ 6 cycles (n = 103). Continuation of/crossover to crizotinib after PD (per independent radiological review) was allowed. The primary endpoint was PFS; key secondary endpoints were ORR, OS, safety, and PROs. Results: In the crizotinib and PCC arms, respectively, 91% and 93% were Han Chinese, 95% and 95% had ECOG PS 0/1, and 20% and 31% had ...

Strengthening the taxonomic backbone of Thai orchid conservation: genetic fingerprinting and morphometry applied to a species complex inGeodorum

A well-supported classification is crucial for conservation planning, but intricate species complexes constitute a serious challenge to the preparation of flora accounts. In preparation of the Flora of Thailand account on Geodorum (Orchidaceae), it was decided to use multivariate morphometric analysis and genetic fingerprinting to resolve the intricate G. pulchellum sensu Seidenfaden/G. siamense species complex, with the specific aim of testing the taxonomic soundness of the apparently rare and conservation-requiring G. pulchellum sensu Seidenfaden. Geodorum densiflorum, universally considered distinct from the above species complex, was included as reference. Morphometric data and tissue samples for amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis were collected from 17 Geodorum populations in northern and north-eastern Thailand. Principal components analysis was employed to summarize the patterns of phenetic variation. Hierarchical genetic differentiation between populations was explored using Bayesian inference followed by cluster analysis. The taxonomic distinction of G. densiflorum was generally supported. In contrast, G. siamense and G. pulchellum sensu Seidenfaden were poorly separated, especially according to the estimated patterns of inter-population genetic differentiation. The G. pulchellum sensu Seidenfaden/G. siamense complex should be treated as one variable species (under the name G. siamense), meaning that G. pulchellum sensu Seidenfaden should not be given high independent conservation priority. This study demonstrates that flora accounts can benefit from prior employment of multivariate and Bayesian methods for exploring intricate species complexes, in turn leading to more solid decisions and priorities in a conservation context.

Mitogenome analysis reveals a complex phylogeographic relationship within the wild tiger population of Thailand

We present the first study of the complete mitogenome of wild tigers Panthera tigris in Thailand. Thailand has been recognised as one of the most important countries within the geo- graphic range of P. tigris and is home to 2 subspecies: Indochinese P. t. corbetti in the north and Malayan P. t. jacksoni in the south. We obtained samples from wild tigers in a large forest complex in northern Thailand (Western Forest Complex, WEFCOM) and from locally confiscated individu- als in southern Thailand close to the border with Malaysia. Our results support the occurrence of both Indochinese and Malayan tigers in Thailand and reveal complex phylogeographic patterns of the wild tiger population in Southeast Asia.

Regional and Gender Differences in Years with and without Mobility Limitation in the Older Population of Thailand.

ObjectivesTo examine gender and regional differences in health expectancies based on the measure of mobility.MethodsHealth expectancies by gender and region were computed by Sullivan’s method from the fourth Thai National Health Examination Survey (2009). A total of 9,210 older persons aged 60 years and older were included. Mobility limitation was defined as self-reporting of ability to perform only with assistances/aids at least one of: walking at least 400 metres; or going up or down a flight of 10 stairs. Severe limitation was defined as complete inability to do at least one of these two functions, even with assistances or aids.ResultsAt age 60, females compared to males, spent significantly fewer years without mobility limitation (male-female = 3.2 years) and more years with any limitation (female-male = 6.7 years) and with severe limitation (female-male = 3.2 years). For both genders, years lived with severe limitation were remarkably constant across age. Significant regional inequalities in years lived without and with limitation were evident, with a consistent pattern by gender in years free of mobility limitation (Central ranked the best and the North East ranked the worst). Finally, both males and females in the South had the longest life expectancy and the most years of life with severe mobility limitation.ConclusionThis study identifies inequalities in years without and with mobility limitations with important policy implication.

Genetic polymorphism of caprine stearoyl-coA desaturase (SCD) gene and their relationship with blood cholesterol, triglyceride and pre-weaning growth traits of mixed breeds of goats in southern Thailand

The present study attempts to identify genetic polymorphisms of stearoyl-coA desaturase (SCD) gene and their relationship with blood cholesterol, triglyceride and pre-weaning growth traits in a goat population in southern Thailand. Genetic variability in caprine SCD was analyzed in 290 animals belonging to several types of Thai native (TN), Anglo-nubian (AN), Boer (B) and Saanen (SA) breed crosses by PCR-SSCP and DNA sequencing. Four SNPs were identified in exon3 (A/G), exon5 (C/T), exon6 (C/G) and 3’untranslated region (3’UTR) (TGT deletion). Five haplotypes (A, B, C, D and E) were constructed. Haplotype frequency B was the highest (0.50) but haplotype frequency C was the lowest (0.01). Haplotype effect of SCD gene had influenced on blood cholesterol, triglyceride, weaning weight and growth rate. Individuals with haplotype C had significant lowest triglyceride, weaning weight and growth rate (P&lt;0.05). Also, this haplotype could be culled for growth improvement in this population.

Circulation of HIV-1 Multiple Complexity Recombinant Forms Among Female Sex Workers Recently Infected with HIV-1 in Thailand.

The circulating subtype distribution of HIV-1 has not been well characterized in female sex worker (FSW) populations in Thailand. To understand the mechanisms and interrelationships of epidemics involving FSWs in Thailand, we performed a large molecular epidemiological study of FSWs aged 25 years with recently acquired HIV-1 infections. The samples were collected in 2005, 2007, 2009, and 2011 in 38 provinces, representing every region of Thailand. After gag (p24), pol (pro-RT), and env (C2/V3) were sequenced, comprehensive genome analysis was performed. Genetic subtypes were determined in 159 plasma samples. The percentage of circulating recombinant forms (CRFs) CRF01_AE (90.6%) predominated, while subtype B (1.3%), other CRFs (1.9%), and unique recombinant forms (URFs) (6.2%) were identified as minor populations. Interestingly, the unique recombinant nature of these HIV-1 strains was verified in 10 specimens, indicating the presence of new forms of HIV-1 intersubtypes G/A, C/B, AE/B/C, and AE/B with different recombination breakpoints. Subtype B has contributed to these new generations of unique CRF01/B recombinants, especially in the pol (RT) gene, in which the template switching of the RT genomes occurred during reverse transcription. These results imply that the several unique recombinant viruses circulating in Thailand were probably generated in the population or introduced from neighboring countries. Our study helps clarify the patterns of viral transmission and define transmission pathways in Thailand.

Genetic variation study of 12 X chromosomal STR in central Thailand population.

Genetic data from 12 short tandem repeats (STR) on the X chromosome are currently used in forensics studies to resolve issues related to complex kinship or when data is missing or ambiguous. In this study, we genotyped these 12 X chromosome STR in DNA collected from individuals from central Thailand (n = 391, 282 men and 109 women) and used this information to calculate allele and haplotype frequencies as well as forensic parameters for kinship calculations. Polymorphism information contents of the loci were range from 0.5283-0.9247, and powers of discrimination in females and males were 0.7666-0.9905 and 0.6085-0.9291, respectively. A diallelic pattern was observed at the locus DXS7132. Moreover, a comparison of genetic distance revealed a close relationship within Asian countries. Our results indicate that the X chromosomal short tandem repeat (X-STR) multiplex system provides highly informative genetic data and could be advantageous in forensic studies.

Combined effects of temperature, salinity and rearing density on growth and survival of juvenile ivory shell, Babylonia areolata (Link 1807) population in Thailand

The ivory shell, Babylonia areolata (Link 1807), has been exploited as an important aquaculture organism along the southern China coast. In order to obtain optimal culture conditions for ivory shell juvenile, the central composite rotatable design was used to estimate the combined effects of temperature, salinity and rearing density on accumulated growth rate (AGR) and survival rate (SR). The results showed that the linear effects of temperature and rearing density on both growth and survival were highly significant (P < 0.01), but there was no significant effect on salinity (P > 0.05). The quadratic effects of temperature, salinity and rearing density influenced growth significantly (P < 0.01). The quadratic effects of temperature and salinity on survival of juvenile snail were significant (P < 0.01), the combined effects between the quadratic effect of temperature and the linear effect of rearing density influenced survival significantly (P < 0.01); the interactive effects of temperature, salinity and rearing density played a significant role in survival (P < 0.01). As can be seen from the above experimental results, the effects of temperature and salinity on growth and survival of B. areolata were strengthened with enhanced rearing density in a certain range and vice versa. By optimization using the response surface method, the optimal point was found at a temperature of 26.81°C, a salinity of 28.76 ppt and a rearing density of 527.07 ind m−2. Under these conditions, the optimal AGR and SR were 36.84 mg day−1 and 99.99%, respectively, with a satisfaction function value of 99.71%.

Genetic diversity of the captive Asian tapir population in Thailand, based on mitochondrial control region sequence data and the comparison of its nucleotide structure with Brazilian tapir

The Asian tapir (Tapirus indicus) has been classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2008). Genetic diversity data provide important information for the management of captive breeding and conservation of this species. We analyzed mitochondrial control region (CR) sequences from 37 captive Asian tapirs in Thailand. Multiple alignments of the full-length CR sequences sized 1268 bp comprised three domains as described in other mammal species. Analysis of 16 parsimony-informative variable sites revealed 11 haplotypes. Furthermore, the phylogenetic analysis using median-joining network clearly showed three clades correlated with our earlier cytochrome b gene study in this endangered species. The repetitive motif is located between first and second conserved sequence blocks, similar to the Brazilian tapir. The highest polymorphic site was located in the extended termination associated sequences domain. The results could be applied for future genetic management based in captivity and wild that shows stable populations.

No evidence for local adaptation of dengue viruses to mosquito vector populations in Thailand.

Despite their epidemiological importance, the evolutionary forces that shape the spatial structure of dengue virus genetic diversity are not fully understood. Fine‐scale genetic structure of mosquito vector populations and evidence for genotype × genotype interactions between dengue viruses and their mosquito vectors are consistent with the hypothesis that the geographical distribution of dengue virus genetic diversity may reflect viral adaptation to local mosquito populations. To test this hypothesis, we measured vector competence in all sympatric and allopatric combinations of 14 low‐passage dengue virus isolates and two wild‐type populations of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes sampled in Bangkok and Kamphaeng Phet, two sites located about 300 km apart in Thailand. Despite significant genotype × genotype interactions, we found no evidence for superior vector competence in sympatric versus allopatric vector–virus combinations. Viral phylogenetic analysis revealed no geographical clustering of the 14 isolates, suggesting that high levels of viral migration (gene flow) in Thailand may counteract spatially heterogeneous natural selection. We conclude that it is unlikely that vector‐mediated selection is a major driver of dengue virus adaptive evolution at the regional scale that we examined. Dengue virus local adaptation to mosquito vector populations could happen, however, in places or times that we did not test, or at a different geographical scale.

Clinical experience from Thailand: noninvasive prenatal testing as screening tests for trisomies 21, 18 and 13 in 4736 pregnancies.

The purpose of this article is to report the clinical experience and performance of massively parallel sequencing-based noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) as a screening method in detecting trisomy 21, 18, and 13 (T21/T18/T13) in a mixed-risk population in Thailand. In a 30-month period, 121 medical centers in Thailand offered NIPT as clinical screening tests for fetal T21, T18, and T13 in the mixed-risk population. All NIPT-positive cases were recommended to undergo invasive prenatal diagnosis. A total of 4736 participants received the NIPT test, including 2840 high-risk pregnancies, either with advanced maternal age or positive serum biochemical tests, and 1889 low-risk pregnancies without conventional indications; 99.9% (4732/4736) of the participants with a median maternal age of 35 years old received reports, and 1.3% (63/4732) were classified as test positive, including 36 T21, 19 T18, and 8 T13; 82.5% (52/63) took prenatal diagnosis, and 11.5% (6/52) false-positive cases were observed. The positive predictive values for the detection of T21, T18, and T13 were 94.4%, 79.0%, and 87.5%, respectively. With stringent protocol, our prospective large-scale multicenter nationwide study demonstrated that NIPT showed excellent performance as screening tests for the detection of fetal T21, T18, and T13 in mixed-risk pregnancies in Thailand.

Factors affecting length of productive life and lifetime production traits in a commercial swine herd in Northern Thailand

The length of productive life (LPL) and lifetime production traits are economically important in commercial swine production systems. This study investigated factors that may influence the LPL and lifetime production traits of sows in a commercial swine population in Thailand. The dataset consisted of information from 2768 sows that had their first farrowing from 1989 to 2012. Three breed groups of sows were represented: 122 Duroc, 1944 Landrace and 702 Yorkshire. The traits analyzed were the LPL, lifetime piglets born alive (LBA), lifetime piglets weaned (LPW), lifetime piglets birth weight (LBW) and lifetime piglets weaning weight (LWW). The model consisted of year-season of first farrowing, breed group and age at first farrowing as fixed effects and the residual as a random effect. Year-season of first farrowing was an important source of variation for all traits (p < 0.0001). Yorkshire sows had the longest LPL (p < 0.05) and the highest LPW (p < 0.05) of all sow breed groups, whereas Duroc sows had the lowest least squares means for all traits. Landrace and Yorkshire sows had similar LBA, LBW and LWW. Thus, Yorkshire sows had the highest production efficiency (the longest LPL and highest LPW) of the three breed groups in this population. Age at first farrowing was negatively associated with LPL, LBA, LPW, LBW and LWW. The favorable association between age at first farrowing with LPL and LPW could be used to increase the efficiency of swine production in this population.

Toxicopueraria peduncularis (Fabaceae), a new genus and species record for Thailand

Toxicopueraria peduncularis (Graham ex Benth.) A.N.Egan & B.Pan bis is reported for the first time in Thailand and should be placed on the national watch list for threatened and endangered species. Genus and species descriptions are provided, along with nomenclature, vernacular names, distributional data and specimens examined. This Thailand population is shown to be a distant outlier from the known range for T. peduncularis and its closely related sister species, T. yunnanensis in Yunnan, Sichuan and Guizhou, China.

Cognitive Training Program for Thai Older People with Mild Cognitive Impairment

Population of Thailand is growing rapidly to ageing society. Cognitive abilities change throughout life and decline in ageing depends on the particular type of memory. Cognitive slowing is the change of old age, which affects the individual's capacity to perform activity and quality of life. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a deficit in cognitive function in memory, but does not effect to the daily functioning. However MCI is related in developing to Alzheimer's disease (AD) or other types of dementia commonly found in old age. This research focuses on the elderly people in Thailand with mild cognitive impairment for improving their cognitive function by forming web applications for computers, laptops or tablets. The purpose of this study is to develop a new computer-based program, containing cognitive training software for Thai elderly with mild cognitive impairment. The cognitive training program contains of six categories, involving visuospatial skill, working memory, abstraction, sequencing, categorization and orientation. The validity, reliability, and efficacy of the intervention of the cognitive training program will also investigate. The outcome of using this program will be used for future development of an effective intervention technique for Thai elderly with MCI.

When young are more conspicuous than adults: a new ranid species (Anura: Ranidae) revealed by its tadpole.

Tadpoles of Clinotarsus alticola collected nearby the type locality in Assam, India are barcoded and described. A detailed morphological and morphometrical description of the specimens, along with a study of the anatomy of the buccal cavity are provided. A comparison of these tadpoles with "Clinotarsus alticola" tadpoles from peninsular Thailand and of the genetic variation of a fragment of their mtDNA 16S gene led us to assign the population of peninsular Thailand to a new species, Clinotarsus penelope sp. n. The holotype of the new species is chosen among the tadpole series as no adult could be found in the type locality. Presumed conspecific adults of nearby localities are morphologically described and compared to barcoded adults of Clinotarsus alticola, waiting for further molecular confirmation. The tadpole of the new species differs from that of C. alticola by a much greater size at comparative stages (e.g., 77.7 mm vs. 53.3 mm in stage 36, respectively), a black coloration (vs. a yellow-olive tinge), several ocelli on the tail muscle (vs. only one), a rounded snout (vs. a more pointed snout) and a different Keratodont Row Formula (KRF; nine keratodonts rows maximum on both labia in C. penelope vs. eight maximum in C. alticola). A discussion about the choice of the holotype, the assignment of adult specimens and the future confirmation of this assignment are provided, as well as a comparison with older descriptions of "Clinotarsus alticola" sensu lato tadpoles and with Clinotarsus curtipes tadpoles from Karnataka, India. The lectotype of Clinotarsus alticola is redescribed.

Morphological characteristics and genetic diversity of Burmese long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea).

Macaca fascicularis aurea (Mfa) is the only macaque which has been recorded to use stone tools to access encased foods. They live in close contact with M. fascicularis fascicularis (Mff) in southwestern Thailand and the hybrids were reported [Fooden, 1995]. Although Mff and Mfa can be seen in the same habitat types, tool-use behavior has never been reported in Mff. Thus, comparing the morphological characteristics and genetics between Mfa and Mff should help elucidate not only the morphological differences and genetic divergence between these subspecies but also potentially the relationship between genetics and their tool use behavior. We surveyed Mfa and Mff in Myanmar and Thailand, ranging from 16° 58' to 7° 12' N. Fecal or blood samples were collected from eight, five, and four populations of Mfa, Mff, and Mff × Mfa morphological hybrids along with three individuals of captive Chinese M. mulatta (Mm), respectively, for mtDNA and Y-chromosome (TSPY and SRY genes) DNA sequence analyses. In addition, eight populations were captured and measured for 38 somatometric dimensions. Comparison of the somatic measurements revealed that Mfa had a statistically significantly shorter tail than Mff (P < 0.05). Based on the mtDNA sequences, Mfa was separated from the Mm/Mff clade. Within the Mfa clade, the mainland Myanmar population was separate from the Mergui Archipelago and Thailand Andaman seacoast populations. All the morphological hybrids had the Mff mtDNA haplotype. Based on the Y-chromosome sequences, the three major clades of Mm/Indochinese Mff, Sundaic Mff, and Mfa were constructed. The hybrid populations grouped either with the Mm/Indochinese Mff or with the Mfa. Regarding the genetic analysis, one subspecies hybrid population in Thailand (KRI) elicited tool use behavior, thus the potential role of genetics in tool use behavior is raised in addition to the environmental force, morphological suitability, and cognitive capability. Am. J. Primatol. 78:441-455, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.