Fruit Texture Research Articles

Cover Image:

Fleshy texture is a critical quality characteristic of fruit during development, ripening, and post‐harvest periods. In this issue, Shi et al. (pages 1649–1672) review transcriptional regulation of processes related to fleshy fruit texture, including softening and lignification. The cover image is tomato fruit, a model fleshy fruit widely used in softening studies.

Correlation analysis of texture and chemical properties of olecranon honey peach cultivars from different provinces in China

Texture is key to the fruit quality for the olecranon honey peach. In this study, olecranon honey peach was harvested from 11 Chinese Provinces and the effect of the olecranon honey peach planting areas on fruit texture and the relationship between texture and chemical parameters was investigated. In the texture section, peaches were measured by texture profile analysis (TPA) and puncture tests. Predictive models were developed to determine the texture of olecranon honey peach based on chemical properties. The results demonstrated that olecranon honey peach grown in Lianping county had significantly better texture and structure than those grown in other locations, especially the peach which planted in Lianping county with the 4.0 planting technology at high altitude. Correlation results showed that the texture of olecranon honey peach was negatively correlated with water content, while the hardness of texture parameters was positively correlated with pectin content and crispness was negatively correlated with titratable acid. Creating texture models that can estimate the texture value of olecranon honey peach by water content, pectin, and titratable acid

Transcriptional regulation of fleshy fruit texture.

Fleshy fruit texture is a critically important quality characteristic of ripe fruit. Softening is an irreversible process which operates in most fleshy fruits during ripening which, together with changes in color and taste, contributes to improvements in mouthfeel and general attractiveness. Softening results mainly from the expression of genes encoding enzymes responsible for cell wall modifications but starch degradation and high levels of flavonoids can also contribute to texture change. Some fleshy fruit undergo lignification during development and post-harvest, which negatively affects eating quality. Excessive softening can also lead to physical damage and infection, particularly during transport and storage which causes severe supply chain losses. Many transcription factors (TFs) that regulate fruit texture by controlling the expression of genes involved in cell wall and starch metabolism have been characterized. Some TFs directly regulate cell wall targets, while others act as part of a broader regulatory program governing several aspects of the ripening process. In this review, we focus on advances in our understanding of the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms governing fruit textural change during fruit development, ripening and post-harvest. Potential targets for breeding and future research directions for the control of texture and quality improvement are discussed.

Overexpression of the apple expansin-like gene MdEXLB1 accelerates the softening of fruit texture in tomato

Fruit firmness is an important quality trait of apple fruit texture, and the pre-harvest ripening period is the key period for the formation of apple fruit texture. Expansin is a cell wall loosing protein family that has four subfamilies: α-expansin (EXPA), β-expansin (EXPB), expansin-like A (EXLA), and expansin-like B (EXLB). In this study, we investigated the key period of pre-harvest texture formation in ‘Golden Delicious’ apples based on fruit longitudinal diameter, transverse diameter, firmness, tissue structure, respiration intensity, ethylene release rate, and expansin activity. Within the 10 days before harvest, the fruit was found to reach maturity. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR revealed that most of the expansins were expressed at the ripening stage before harvest. The biological function of the EXLB subfamily gene, MdEXLB1, was further identified, and its subcellular localization on the cell wall was confirmed by transient transformation experiments. Compared with the wild type (WT), the transgenic tomato lines overexpressing MdEXLB1 had lower plant height, earlier fruiting period, fewer days for fruit ripening, higher fruit maturity, lower fruit firmness, higher fruit expansin activity, more discrete flesh cell structure, and accelerated fruit ripening process. Overall, this is the first study to propose that the apple EXLB subfamily gene, MdEXLB1, has biological functions and plays an important role in promoting fruit ripening and softening.

Transcription Factor CpbHLH3 and CpXYN1 Gene Cooperatively Regulate Fruit Texture and Counteract 1-Methylcyclopropene Inhibition of Softening in Postharvest Papaya (Carica papaya L.).

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is a climacteric fruit susceptible to postharvest losses attributable to ethylene-induced ripening and softening. In this study, we examined the effect of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) treatment (1 μL L-1 for 20 h) on the textural properties of "SunUp" papaya fruit and investigated the regulatory mechanisms of molecular profiles. Compared with control, postharvest 1-MCP treatment significantly inhibited fruit softening, which is associated with higher hemicellulose content and lower xylanase activity of papaya fruit. Moreover, RNA-seq and qRT-PCR analyses indicated that CpbHLH3 and CpXYN1 were differentially expressed during storage. Yeast one-hybrid, electrophoretic mobility shift assays, and dual-luciferase reporter assays disclosed that CpbHLH3 activated the transcription of CpXYN1 by binding directly to its promoter. Transient overexpression of CpbHLH3 alleviates the inhibitory effect of 1-MCP on softening by increasing xylanase activity and upregulating the gene expression. Our observations provide new insights into the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms that govern softening of postharvest papaya fruit.

Bioinformatics Study of Aux/IAA Family Genes and Their Expression in Response to Different Hormones Treatments during Japanese Apricot Fruit Development and Ripening.

Auxin/indole-3-acetic acid (Aux/IAA) is a transcriptional repressor in the auxin signaling pathway that plays a role in several plant growth and development as well as fruit and embryo development. However, it is unclear what role they play in Japanese apricot (Prunus mume) fruit development and maturity. To investigate the role of Aux/IAA genes in fruit texture, development, and maturity, we comprehensively identified and expressed 19 PmIAA genes, and demonstrated their conserved domains and homology across species. The majority of PmIAA genes are highly responsive and expressed in different hormone treatments. PmIAA2, PmIAA5, PmIAA7, PmIAA10, PmIAA13, PmIAA18, and PmIAA19 showed a substantial increase in expression, suggesting that these genes are involved in fruit growth and maturity. During fruit maturation, alteration in the expression of PmIAA genes in response to 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) treatment revealed an interaction between auxin and ethylene. The current study investigated the response of Aux/IAA development regulators to auxin during fruit ripening, with the goal of better understanding their potential application in functional genomics.

Effect of polysaccharide based edible coating to improve shelf ­life and quality of guava (Psidium guajava) in Malwa region of central India

Guava fruit have a very short shelf life due to high rate of respiration. Storage of guava fruits at room temperature causes weight loss, microbial disease, physiological disorders and physical injuries and is moreover, highly susceptibility to chilling injury making low temperature storage less possible. Therefore, the present investigation was carried out at the Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture, Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh, India during the year 2019- 2020 with an objective to extend shelf-life of guava fruits cv. Rewa-72. The treatments comprised of post-harvest treatments with Chitosan, Carboxymethyl cellulose, Aloe vera gel. The physico-chemical, functional and sensory quality of guava fruits were significantly influenced by application Chitosan @ 1.5% and Carboxymethyl cellulose @ 1.5%) coating up to 12 days of storage. It was found that the CMC or Chitosan bilayer coating was equally effective as the commercial polyethylene wax in enhancing glossy appearance of guava fruits because it is a good moisture barrier, thus preventing the water loss by transpiration. Chitosan @ 1.5% and CMC @1.5% treated fruits had more overall acceptability because this coating helped in improving the colour, aroma, taste, texture, appearance and quality of fruits. Hence, this technology could be more useful for increase shelf life of fruits, low cost and reduce the post-harvest loss of fruits it also helps to replace the use of harmful chemicals by growers and traders.

Recent advances in ultrasound‐coupled drying for improving the quality of fruits and vegetables: a review

SummaryDrying is a commonly used fresh‐keeping technology. Conventional drying technologies such as convective drying, freeze‐drying causes the degradation of product quality due partly to long drying time. Ultrasound as a great potential technology is applied to improve drying process of fruits and vegetables. This review provides recent advances in ultrasound‐coupled drying for improving the quality of fruits and vegetables. Effects of ultrasound‐coupled drying were stated in detail. The designs of ultrasound‐coupled drying systems were described, indicating that these systems effectively reduced drying time. Effect of ultrasound‐coupled drying on the quality of fruits and vegetables was reviewed. Ultrasound‐coupled drying was helpful to improve physicochemical quality attributes such as colour, water activity, texture, rehydration capacity, bioactive compounds, antioxidant capacity, microstructure and shelf life of fruits and vegetables. Hence, this suggested that ultrasound application is a promising technology to improve drying process of fruits and vegetables.

Genome-wide identification and characterization of long noncoding RNAs during peach (Prunus persica) fruit development and ripening

LncRNAs represent a class of RNA transcripts of more than 200 nucleotides (nt) in length without discernible protein-coding potential. The expression levels of lncRNAs are significantly affected by stress or developmental cues. Recent studies have shown that lncRNAs participate in fruit development and ripening processes in tomato and strawberry; however, in other fleshy fruits, the association between lncRNAs and fruit ripening remains largely elusive. Here, we constructed 9 ssRNA-Seq libraries from three different peach (Prunus persica) fruit developmental stages comprising the first and second exponential stages and the fruit-ripening stage. In total, 1500 confident lncRNAs from 887 loci were obtained according to the bioinformatics analysis. The lncRNAs identified in peach fruits showed distinct characteristics compared with protein-coding mRNAs, including lower expression levels, lower complexity of alternative splicing, shorter isoforms and smaller numbers of exons. Expression analysis identified 575 differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs) classified into 6 clusters, among which members of Clusters 1, 2, 4 and 5 were putatively associated with fruit development and ripening processes. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed that the DELs indeed had stage-specific expression patterns in peach fruits. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that DELs might be associated with fruit-ripening-related physiological and metabolic changes, such as flavonoid biosynthesis, fruit texture softening, chlorophyll breakdown and aroma compound accumulation. Finally, the similarity analysis of lncRNAs within different plant species indicated the low sequence conservation of lncRNAs. Our study reports a large number of fruit-expressed lncRNAs and identifies fruit development phase-specific expressed lncRNA members, which highlights their potential functions in fruit development and ripening processes and lays the foundations for future functional research.

Cell wall polysaccharides and mono-/disaccharides as chemical determinants for the texture and hygroscopicity of freeze-dried fruit and vegetable cubes

In order to select the critical factors on the texture and hygroscopic characteristics of freeze-dried fruit and vegetable cubes, the correlation analysis was performed on the major chemical compositions of 12 fresh materials, and the microstructure, texture, hygroscopicity of corresponding freeze-dried samples. The dry proportion of starch-rich materials, such as taro, was mainly composed of polysaccharides (0.76–0.89 g/g db), while the dry proportion of starch-poor materials such as apple was mainly composed of mono-/disaccharides (0.70–0.95/g db). Data from the microscopy showed that cell wall polysaccharides constituted the scaffold of freeze-dried cubes and natural starch granules attached to the scaffold as fillers. Both of them inhibited structural collapse. Mono-/disaccharides were accountable for the hardness and crispiness of freeze-dried cubes, however, excessive mono-/disaccharides could reduce the size of the pores and cause severe shrinkage. Polysaccharides reduced the hygroscopicity of freeze-dried cubes, on the contrary, mono-/disaccharides promoted hygroscopicity, especially fructose.

Effects of non-thermal processes on texture, color and sensory properties of Iranian barberry during storage

BACKGROUND: Barberry, is the main agricultural product in South Khorasan province of Iran, after saffron. Fresh fruit is perishable with short storage time. OBJECTIVE: Irradiation is an economical modern technology in food processing which maintains nutritional values and enhance shelf life of raw food without using any additives. METHODS: Barberry fruit was harvested in Birjand city by methods including “cutting branches” and “collecting fallen fruit from the cluster”. Fruit on cut branches was dried at ambient temperature under shadow which is known as “puffy barberry” locally. Fruit has fallen under shrubs was dried on a clean cloth under sunlight and locally is famed as “jewel barberry”. Some of fresh barberries were treated by osmotic solution and then they have been dried. Untreated dried fruit was processed by, freezing pasteurization and gamma irradiation at doses of 0, 3, 5 and 10 kGy. Effects of dried barberry types (puffy and jewel), processes, 6 months of storage at temperature of 4 or 25°C on texture, color and sensory properties of fruit were evaluated. RESULTS: Puffy barberry irradiated at 5 kGy by gamma radiations, after 6 months of storage at 4°C showed an acceptable quality. CONCLUSIONS: Combination of irradiation and refrigerated storage were reported as optimal conditions of processing and storage for barberry fruit.

Thladiantha longipedicellata (Cucurbitaceae), a new species from Guangxi, China

Thladiantha longipedicellata, a new species of Cucurbitaceae, is described and illustrated from a gorge in southwestern Guangxi, China. It is similar to T. cordifolia and T. grandisepala in its imbricate bracts in the male inflorescence, but it can be chiefly distinguished from both species by having vestigial leaves, longer peduncles and pedicels in the male inflorescence, the shape of male inflorescence, the texture of fruit and female styles split to the base. A character table to distinguish the new species from morphologically similar species as well as color plates for comparison are provided.

Fagonia cretica-Mediated Synthesis of Manganese Oxide (MnO2) Nanomaterials Their Characterization and Evaluation of Their Bio-Catalytic and Enzyme Inhibition Potential for Maintaining Flavor and Texture in Apples

The apple is the most widely used fruit globally. Apples are more prone to fungal spoilage, which leads to browning and subsequent changes in their flavor and texture. Browning is also caused by the tyrosinase enzyme. By inhibiting tyrosinase initiation and fungal spoilage in fruits, the natural flavor and texture of fruits can be maintained. Biogenic NPs can act as antioxidants to inhibit tyrosinase and due to oxidative stress, it also catalyzes the deformation of fungal hyphae and spores. Nanotechnology is a research hotspot that has gained considerable interest due to its potential inferences in biosciences and food preservation technology. The present study aims to use biomass from the Fagonia cretica to create bio-inspired manganese oxide MnO2 NPs and to evaluate its bio-catalytic potential for antifungal anti-browning through the inhibition of tyrosinase and its antioxidant potential for preserving apple flavor and texture. The green synthesized nanoparticles were extensively analyzed using UV spectroscopy, XRD, SEM, EDX, and FTIR techniques. Moreover, the synthesized manganese oxide nanoparticles (MnO2 NPs) were evaluated for their bio-catalytic potential as anti-fungal and anti-spoiling agents. The values of antifungal activity among all the samples were 14.2 ± 86 mm, 8.9 ± 6.0 mm, 17.7 ± 1.26, and 20.7 ± 4.38 mm for Penicillium expansum, Monilinia fructigena, Penicillium chrysogenum, and Aspergillus oryzae at 200 µg/well, respectively. Moreover, the biogenic NPs were evaluated for their anti-browning potential through the inhibition of tyrosinase. MnO2 NPs have been shown to have considerable inhibitory effects on tyrosinase up to 64.8 ± 0.16 at 200 µg/mL and (27.2 ± 0.58) at 25 µg/mL. Biogenic MnO2 NPs can also act as antioxidants to inhibit tyrosinase and fungal growth by the formation of free radicals that damage the fungal hyphae and, as a result, slow down browning. The maximum DPPH free radical scavenging activity was 74.5 ± 0.39% at 200 µg/mL, and the minimum was 12.4 ± 0.27 at 25 µg/mL. The biogenic MnO2 NPs are biocompatible and play a potent role in maintaining the flavor and texture of apples.

Enzyme Activities in the Lignin Metabolism of Chinese Olive (Canarium album) with Different Flesh Characteristics

Lignin is crucial to the formation of fruit texture quality. Here, we aimed to explore the relationship between lignin metabolism and fruit texture by investigating the lignin content, total phenols and their related enzyme activities among three Chinese olive (Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch) genotypes. Our results showed that lignin deposition moved from the exocarp to the flesh in Chinese olive fruit. The lignin, total phenols and enzyme activities were all different between the three Chinese olive cultivars at each developmental stage. The lignin content was positively correlated with the PAL, 4CL and POD activities. These results demonstrated that lignin metabolism was regulated through the related enzyme activities. Therefore, our findings may provide insight to facilitate further improvement in fruit texture quality in Chinese olive.

Estimation of genetic variance of some line generation S3 cantaloupensis melon hydroponically based on smart farming system

Abstract This research aims to examine the genetic variance, heritability value, and the expected genetic progress of the S3 generation melon lines tested so as to determine the potential lines to be used as sources of genetic material in breeding programs. This research was conducted from January to May 2021 in greenhouse CV. Agroniaga. The experimental design used was a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with a single treatment in the form of a line consisting of 6 levels, namely GR-1-3-7, GR-1-3-8, GR-1-3-20, GR-1-3-22, GR-1-2-2, and GR-1-1-3. Quantitative character observation data were analyzed using ANOVA or F test at 5% significance level. If the F test has a significant effect, then the average value is further tested with the Scott-Knott test. The results showed that the morphology of the S3 generation melon lines showed differences in fruit characters based on net distribution, net intensity, net pattern, fruit aroma, and fruit texture. The value of broad genetic variance was found in the parameters of plant height, male flowering age, harvest age, and fruit weight. High heritability values for male flowering age, female flowering age, harvest age, and fruit flesh thickness. The GR-1-1-3, GR-1-3-22, GR-1-3-7, and GR-1-3-8 lines are lines that have greater potential than other lines in terms of the effectiveness of selection on fruit weight parameters, so it is good to use for the next selection process.

Ethylene Production Affects Blueberry Fruit Texture and Storability.

Ethylene, produced endogenously by plants and their organs, can induce a wide array of physiological responses even at very low concentrations. Nevertheless, the role of ethylene in regulating blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) ripening and storability is still unclear although an increase in ethylene production has been observed in several studies during blueberry ripening. To overcome this issue, we evaluated the endogenous ethylene production of a Vaccinium germplasm selection at different fruit ripening stages and after cold storage, considering also textural modifications. Ethylene and texture were further assessed also on a bi-parental full-sib population of 124 accessions obtained by the crossing between “Draper” and “Biloxi”, two cultivars characterized by a different chilling requirement and storability performances. Our results were compared with an extensive literature research, carried out to collect all accessible information on published works related to Vaccinium ethylene production and sensitivity. Results of this study illustrate a likely role of ethylene in regulating blueberry shelf life. However, a generalisation valid for all Vaccinium species is not attainable because of the high variability in ethylene production between genotypes, which is strictly genotype-specific. These differences in ethylene production are related with blueberry fruit storage performances based on textural alterations. Specifically, blueberry accessions characterized by the highest ethylene production had a more severe texture decay during storage. Our results support the possibility of tailoring ad hoc preharvest and postharvest strategies to extend blueberry shelf life and quality according with the endogenous ethylene production level of each cultivar.

Converting Apple Textural Parameters Obtained from Penetrometers and Their Relationships with Sensory Attributes

Textural attributes of apple impact consumers’ acceptance of the fruit, and are frequently measured by researchers and industry experts to evaluate the fruit quality at different stages of production and marketing. Various instruments are used to conduct these textural evaluations in research and industry settings. The application of different instruments makes the comparison and integration of results extremely difficult. The main objectives of this study were to compare data obtained from three widely used textural instruments, investigate their relationships with each other and with sensory evaluations, and develop models to convert data among instruments. Three penetrometers were included in the study: (1) Fruit Texture Analyzer (FTA); (2) Mohr Digi-Test-2 (MDT-2); and (3) TA.XTplus Texture Analyzer (TA.XTplus). Eight apple varieties with a range of textural attributes were selected. Eleven sensory judges evaluated three apple slices (1/8 apple) from each variety. The instrumental measurements were conducted on 10 apples per instrument from each variety, with two measurements on each apple. Results of principal component analysis indicated that 95.82% of the variation in the texture data could be explained using only two principal components. Linear and nonlinear regression models were developed to convert data obtained from an instrument to those from other instruments.

Trichoderma asperelloides PSU-P1 Induced Expression of Pathogenesis-Related Protein Genes against Gummy Stem Blight of Muskmelon (Cucumis melo) in Field Evaluation

Gummy stem blight caused by Stagonosporopsis cucurbitacearum is the most destructive disease of muskmelon cultivation. This study aimed to induce disease resistance against gummy stem blight in muskmelon by Trichoderma asperelloides PSU-P1. This study was arranged into two crops. Spore suspension at a concentration of 1 × 106 spores/mL of T. asperelloides PSU-P1 was applied to muskmelon to investigate gene expression. The expression of PR genes including chitinase (chi) and β-1,3-glucanase (glu) were determined by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and enzyme activity was assayed by the DNS method. The effects of T. asperelloides PSU-P1 on growth, yield, and postharvest quality of muskmelon fruit were measured. A spore suspension at a concentration of 1 × 106 spore/mL of T. asperelloides PSU-P1 and S. cucurbitacearum was applied to muskmelons to determine the reduction in disease severity. The results showed that the expression of chi and glu genes in T. asperelloides PSU-P1-treated muskmelon plants was 7–10-fold higher than that of the control. The enzyme activities of chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase were 0.15–0.284 and 0.343–0.681 U/mL, respectively, which were higher than those of the control (pathogen alone). Scanning electron microscopy revealed crude metabolites extracted from T. asperelloides PSU-P1-treated muskmelon plants caused wilting and lysis of S. cucurbitacearum hyphae, confirming the activity of cell-wall-degrading enzymes (CWDEs). Application of T. asperelloides PSU-P1 increased fruit weight and fruit width; sweetness and fruit texture were not significantly different among treated muskmelons. Application of T. asperelloides PSU-P1 reduced the disease severity scale of gummy stem blight to 1.10 in both crops, which was significantly lower than that of the control (2.90 and 3.40, respectively). These results revealed that application of T. asperelloides PSU-P1 reduced disease severity against gummy stem blight by overexpressed PR genes and elevated enzyme activity in muskmelon plants.

Identification and Functional Analysis of the CgNAC043 Gene Involved in Lignin Synthesis from Citrusgrandis "San Hong".

Overaccumulation of lignin (a physiological disorder known as granulation) often occurs during fruit ripening and postharvest storage in pomelo (Citrus grandis). It causes an unpleasant fruit texture and taste. Previous studies have shown that lignin metabolism is closely associated with the process of juice sacs granulation. At present, the underlying transcriptional regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we identified and isolated a candidate NAC transcription factor, CgNAC043, that is involved in the regulation of lignin biosynthesis in Citrus grandis, which has homologs in Arabidopsis and other plants. We used the fruit juice sacs of ‘San hong’ as the material, the staining for lignin with HCl−phloroglucinol of fruit juice sacs became dark red from the various developmental stages at 172 to 212 days post anthesis (DPA). The RT-qPCR was used to analyze the gene expression of CgNAC043 and its target gene CgMYB46 in fruit sacs, it was found that the expression trend of CgNAC043 was basically same as CgMYB46, which increased gradually and peaked at 212 DPA. The expression level of CgNAC043 in juice sacs obtained away from the core was the lowest, while those near the core and granulated area were highly expressed. The transcriptional activation activity of CgNAC043 and CgMYB46 was analyzed by a yeast two-hybrid system, with only CgNAC043 showing transcriptional activation activity in Y2H Gold yeast. A transformation vector, p1301- CgNAC043, was transformed into the mesocarp of ‘San hong’ by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Results showed that the expression of transcription factors CgMYB58 and CgMYB46 are all upregulated. Further experiments proved that CgNAC043 not only can directly trans-activate the promoter of CgMYB46 but also trans-activate the promoters for the lignin biosynthesis-related genes CgCCoAOMT and CgC3H by dual luciferase assay. We isolated the CgNAC043 gene in pomelo and found CgNAC043 regulates target genes conferring the regulation of juice sacs granulation.

Dose optimisation of volatile molecules-based bio-fungicide product formulations against anthracnose (Colletotrichum coccodes) in tomato fruits

Objective of study was to optimise the dose of EC37, EC39 and EC40 against Colletotrichum coccodes in tomato fruit by response surface methodology. In the in-vitro assay, three products were tested against C. coccodes by minimum inhibition concentration, then by using model to test the effects of three levels of two factors (concentration and treatment time) for post-harvest treatment of tomato fruits. The results indicated that 0.55% product concentration with 15 min exposure time was the effective optimised dose treatment with least fruit rot spoilage with retention of fruit texture and colour during storage, on par with the positive control (0.1% Difenoconazole). Storage studies (28 ± 2 °C, 70 ± 5% RH) with above optimised dosage of these product treatments showed less anthracnose incidence, better retention of fruit quality of treated tomato fruits as compared with the positive control and the control fruits after 12 days of storage. Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2022.2033566 .