Text-based Programming Research Articles

Mental stress analysis by measuring heart rate variability during learning programming: Comparison of visual- and text-based languages

Visual-based programming languages that facilitate block-based coding have gained popularity as introductory methods for learning programming. Conversely, programming experts typically use text-based programming languages like C and Java. Nevertheless, a seamless method for transitioning from a visual- to text-based language has yet to be developed. Therefore, our research project aims to develop a methodology that facilitates this transition by bridging the gap between the two languages and verifying the variations in the biometric information of learners of both languages. In this study, we measured the participants’ heart rate variability (HRV) and evaluated variations in mental stress experienced while learning visual- and text-based languages. The experimental results confirmed that participants proficient in text-based languages experienced lower HRV (indicating higher stress levels) when learning visual-based languages. Conversely, those poorly proficient in text-based languages exhibited higher HRVs (indicating more favorable stress levels) while learning text-based languages. This study successfully observed differences in stress levels while learning both language types using experimental methods. These findings serve as a preliminary step toward clarifying the impact of stress experienced during learning outcomes and identifying the factors that constitute beneficial stress. This study establishes a foundation for an intermediate language that can enhance transitions between the two types of languages.

Effects of Block-Based Visual Programming on K-12 Students’ Learning Outcomes

Computer programming is regarded as an important skill for the future. However, many K-12 students face challenges and difficulties in learning traditional text-based programming. Block-based visual programming (BVP) can reduce the difficulty of learning programming and is seen as a potential programming education tool. Nevertheless, the effects of BVP on K-12 student learning outcomes remain unclear, and there is no evidence of meta-analysis. This is the first meta-analysis that aims to examine the effects of BVP on K-12 students’ learning based on 42 effect sizes from 29 independent experimental studies (2000–2023). The result suggests that BVP has an upper-medium effect on learning ( SMD = 0.769, 95% CI = [0.554, 0.984], p < .001), particularly in the cognitive outcome ( SMD = 0.698, p < .001). Moreover, the BVP tool, study design, and region have moderating effects. The BVP’s effects are larger when: (1) with 61∼100 students, (2) for junior high school, (3) with the learning duration of >1 month, (4) targeting math, (5) among novice students, (6) using Scratch, ScratchJr, Alice, and App Inventor, (7) employing project-based learning and project-based + game-based learning, (8) base on quasi-experimental design, (9) in Africa and Europe, (10) with latter publication years. Finally, discussions, implications, limitations, and future directions are put forward.

Towards an assessment model of college students’ computational thinking with text-based programming

Towards an assessment model of college students’ computational thinking with text-based programming

From Blocks to Text: Bridging Programming Misconceptions

The use of a pedagogical approach mediated transfer with the bridging method has been successful in facilitating the transitions from block-based to text-based programming languages. Nevertheless, there is a lack of research addressing the impact of this transfer on programming misconceptions during the transition. The way programming concepts are taught to K-12 learners can later result in misconceptions for adult learners. The main objective was to examine the impact of mediated transfer using the bridging method pedagogical approach on the prevalence of programming misconceptions. We conducted a quasi-experimental study in school settings during informatics (computer science) classes among 163 sixth-grade students. The control group received traditional programming lectures using the text-based programming language, Python. Conversely, the experimental group utilized a mediated transfer pedagogical approach by starting with the block-based programming language MakeCode for micro:bit before transitioning to the text-based Python. Our findings indicate that the experimental group significantly reduced programming misconceptions in fundamental programming concepts: variables, sequencing, selection, and loops - compared to the control group. This suggests that the use of block-based programming language as an initial step in programming education, followed by a structured transition to text-based programming language, can effectively mitigate common misconceptions among K-12 learners.

Block-based versus text-based programming: a comparison of learners’ programming behaviors, computational thinking skills and attitudes toward programming

Block-based versus text-based programming: a comparison of learners’ programming behaviors, computational thinking skills and attitudes toward programming

Bridging the Gap: Template-Based Coding for Transitioning from Visual Logic to Text-Based Programming

Visual programming environments, which utilize visual blocks or flowcharts to represent programming logic, have emerged as a key strategy to assist novice learners in overcoming the complexities associated with text-based programming. However, transitioning from these visual representations to full-text programming often presents a significant challenge for these learners. One solution to this challenge is the use of template-based coding, which has been shown to increase performance and reduce the number of errors made by students studying computer programming. This study used an experimental assignment and survey to evaluate the Code-By-Template (CBT) application among 82 students, revealing enhanced coding proficiency and positive student attitudes, highlighting the effectiveness of CBT in programming learning. The CBT, in particular, has been found to enhance students’ performance in successfully solving programming problems. The observed improvement in performance can be attributed to a 17% increase in scores (correctness) during the same time frame, suggesting a decrease in the number of errors. It is important to acknowledge that the scores mostly depend on the number and type of errors. Beyond this performance improvement, students have also expressed interest, describing the CBT as “extremely helpful” and “making programming easier.” This highlights the qualitative benefits of the tool in promoting appreciation for it, indicating its potential to enhance engagement as well as learning outcomes. The difficulty of learning programming code has had a persistent impact on retention rates in computer programming courses. However, the improved performance and learning ease facilitated by the CBT environment may offer a solution to this retention problem. By making the learning process more manageable and less error-prone, the CBT environment can help to ensure confidence-boosting and interest-fostering that lead to more students successfully completing their programming courses and continuing their studies in this field.

Effects of Gamified Python Programming on Primary School Students’ Computational Thinking Skills: A Differential Analysis of Gender

Computational thinking (CT), as a new future-oriented literacy, has gained attention at the basic education level. Graphical programming is the common way to develop CT in primary students, but this drag-and-drop programming may weaken students’ understanding of programming’s abstract concepts and code logic. Text-based programming approaches can solve the problems faced by graphical programming, but few studies have explored the impact of text-based programming on CT. Therefore, we conducted a quasi-experimental study with 98 6th graders to explore the impact of gamified Python programming on CT. The findings showed that CT skills, as well as abstraction and decomposition, pattern recognition and evaluation in CT sub-skills, were significantly higher with students in the experimental group than in the control group. Furthermore, we found that gamified Python programming enabled boys and girls to reach the same level of CT skills. However, in terms of CT sub-skills, we found that gamified Python programming was more beneficial to the development of pattern recognition and evaluation skills for boys and abstraction and decomposition skills for girls. This demonstrated the effectiveness of gamified Python programming to improve primary students’ CT skills while clarifying the impact of gender and enriching research in the field of text-based programming.

Experience of using the visualized programming environment Scratch for teaching the basics of algorithmization and programming in grades VI—VIII in schools of Belarus

"Algorithmization and programming" is an important content line of the school informatics course. However, many students have difficulty learning it due to insufficient development of abstract thinking and lack of practical experience in programming. The visual programming language Scratch can become a propaedeutic tool for studying this content line, allowing one to overcome these difficulties and make the study of programming more accessible and interesting for schoolchildren.The article presents examples of tasks to be performed in the visualized programming environment Scratch, which are offered to students of the VI—VIII grades of schools in Belarus to master the content line "Fundamentals of algorithmization and programming" of the academic subject "Informatics". Each task is presented at three levels: reproductive, productive and creative.The material will be useful to informatics teachers working with students who find it difficult to master the concepts of algorithmization and programming using text-based programming languages (Pascal, Python, C++, etc.).

The Effect of Teaching Physical Programming on Computational Thinking Skills and Self-Efficacy Perceptions Towards Computational Thinking

The study examined the effect of teaching text-based programming with a physical programming tool on secondary school students’ computational thinking skills and self-efficacy perceptions. The study was conducted according to a sequential explanatory design as a mixed method research. The study group consisted of 85 secondary school students. Within the scope of the study, a physical programming tool called Micro:bit was used to teach Python programming for a period of 6 weeks. Data were collected using the Self-Efficacy Perception Scale for Computational Thinking Skill, Bebras: International Challenge on Informatics and Computational Thinking Tasks, tests focused on programming tool, concepts, and processes, and through semi-structured interview questioning. According to the findings obtained from pretests and posttests, a significant and positive difference was found in the students’ computational thinking skills and self-efficacy perceptions towards computational thinking skill. As a result of having received instruction in programming, the students satisfactorily learnt the required programming concepts and processes. Through learning Python programming with a physical programming tool, the students not only gained the skills required to write appropriate syntax, and to test and debug code, but they also learnt programming concepts such as variables, conditional expressions, loops, and functions.

Transitioning From Introductory to Professional Programming in Secondary Education: Comparing Learners’ Computational Thinking Skills, Behaviors, and Attitudes

Although previous research has provided some insights into the effects of block-based and text-based programming modalities, there is a dearth of a detailed, multi-dimensional analysis of the transition process from different introductory programming modalities to professional programming learning. This study employed a quasi-experimental design to address this gap, involving 64 secondary school students in two groups. For the beginning five weeks, the first group used an introductory block-based programming environment, while the second group used an introductory text-based programming environment. Then, both groups transitioned to professional text-based programming for the subsequent eight weeks. The results showed that participants who transitioned from introductory text-based programming to professional text-based programming (1) significantly outperformed in computational thinking skills; (2) had more code-writing and debugging behaviors and fewer irrelevant behaviors, and (3) had more interactions with the instructor. No significant differences were observed between the two groups regarding enjoyment, confidence, and interest in programming. Drawing on these findings, this study proposes pedagogical implications that could facilitate the adoption of programming modalities within the broader context of STEM education.

Investigation into the Influence of Socio-Cultural Factors on Attitudes toward Artificial Intelligence

In this study, the influence of socio-cultural factors on attitudes toward artificial intelligence (AI) was investigated. In total, 1,677 Korean middle school students were selected to participate, and a test tool was used to measure the attitude toward AI. As a result, according to socio-cultural factors, middle school students’ attitudes toward AI were affected differently by gender- or AI-related experiences. In particular, students experiencing difficulties because of socio-cultural factors showed a more positive attitude toward AI if they had an AI education. On the other hand, interest toward AI and programming experience had a significant effect on attitudes toward AI and was not affected by socio-cultural factors. In particular, students with high interest toward AI or experience with block- and text-based programming languages showed significantly positive attitudes toward AI. Hence, the disparity in middle school students’ attitude toward AI according to socio-cultural factors was found.

Does text-based programming improve K-12 students’ CT skills? Evidence from a meta-analysis and synthesis of qualitative data in educational contexts

Promoting computational thinking (CT) skills in programming activities has become a key issue in K-12 education, and the shift from visual to text-based programming is an inevitable trend in programming education. Although research on K-12 text-based programming to promote CT skills has been increasing, a literature review that systematically organizes and analyzes it has not yet emerged. Moreover, there are no uniform conclusions on how to design text-based programming activities to effectively promote students’ acquisition of CT skills. The purpose of this study was mainly to determine the effectiveness of using text-based programming to enhance K-12 students’ CT skills, to explore the effects of various text-based programming instructional design factors on CT skill acquisition, and to discuss the key issues and future development of text programming in the K-12 stage. In this study using the quantitative method of meta-analysis and the qualitative method of systematic literature review, 46 studies of text-based programming on K-12 students’ CT skills were retrieved, of which 19 empirical studies including 37 effects size met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis and were therefore used as a meta-analysis. The results showed that text-based programming improved the CT skills of K-12 students overall (Hedges’ g = 0.71, 95% CI [0.51, 0.90], p < 0.01). No publication bias was detected. In addition, the results of the moderator analysis revealed that: 1) text programming had the greatest impact on computational thinking development in middle school students (g = 0.833, p = <0.05); 2) the duration of text programming instruction had the most significant positive impact on students' CT at 16–20 weeks (g = 1.038, p <0.05); 3) the moderating effect of different assessment tools on CT skills in text programming instruction The difference was statistically significant, and the test assessment method had a highly significant positive moderating effect on CT skills of students in grades K-12 (g = 1.005, p < 0.05); 4) The moderating effect of different student sample sizes on students' computational thinking development was significantly different, and the implementation of text-based programming instruction had the most significant effect on students' CT improvement among students with sample sizes of 41 ∼ 60 (g = 0.921, p < 0.05); 5) There were no significant differences in the effects of different text-based programming languages and learning environments on students' computational thinking.However, there are still barriers to developing instructional practices for text-based programming to foster CT in K-12 students, such as the highly abstract and complex syntax of text-based programming. This study found that the most critical issues that need to be addressed in current text-based programming to foster CT in K-12 students are the lack of student interest in text-based programming and the misconceptions that arise when students move from visual programming to text-based programming. To address these issues, future research could begin with improving teaching methods and increasing student motivation and interest. To address these issues, future research could begin with improving teaching methods and increasing students' motivation and interest.

Sustainable Learning of Computer Programming Languages Using Mind Mapping

In the current era of information technology, students need to learn modern programming languages efficiently. The art of teaching/learning programming requires many logical and conceptual skills. So it’s a challenging task for the instructors/learners to teach/learn these programming languages effectively and efficiently. Mind mapping is a useful visual tool for establishing ideas and connecting them to solve problems. This research proposed an effective way to teach programming languages through visual tools. This experimental study uses a mind mapping tool to teach two programming environments: Text-based Programming and Blocks-based Programming. We performed the experiments with one hundred and sixty undergraduate students of two public sector universities in the Asia Pacific region. Four different instructional approaches, including block-based language (BBL), text-based languages (TBL), mind map with text-based language (MMTBL) and mind mapping with block-based (MMBBL) are used for this purpose. The results show that instructional approaches using a mind mapping tool to help students solve given tasks in their critical thinking are more effective than other instructional techniques.

Findings on Teaching Machine Learning in High School: A Ten - Year Systematic Literature Review

Machine Learning (ML) is becoming increasingly present in our lives. Thus, it is important to introduce ML already in High School, enabling young people to become conscious users and creators of intelligent solutions. Yet, as typically ML is taught only in higher education, there is still a lack of knowledge on how to properly teach younger students. Therefore, in this systematic literature review, we analyze findings on teaching ML in High School with regard to content, pedagogical strategy, and technology. Results show that High School students were able to understand and apply basic ML concepts, algorithms and tasks. Pedagogical strategies focusing on active problem/project-based hands-on approaches were successful in engaging students and demonstrated positive learning effects. Visual as well as text-based programming environments supported students to build ML models in an effective way. Yet, the review also identified the need for more rigorous evaluations on how to teach ML.

Towards a Web Generator of Programming Games for Primary School Children

This paper presents a web system to generate programming games for primary school children, with the objective to teach basic programming concepts. It also reviews five existing games with the same purpose, which use either block-based or text-based programming languages. A comparative analysis of the games is provided, based on some important features, such as the presence of a levels map, the use of a block or text language, the presence of a result screen, the presentation of the shortest and previous solutions, among others. The web system is divided into two main parts: the game generator that is used by teachers to create new programming games, and the programming games themselves that are played by students.

Engaging girls in computer science: gender differences in attitudes and beliefs about learning scratch and python

ABSTRACT Background and Context A continued gender disparity has driven a need for effective interventions for recruiting girls to computer science. Prior research has demonstrated that middle school girls hold beliefs and attitudes that keep them from learning computer science, which can be mitigated through classroom design. Objective This study investigated whether programming environment design has a similar effect, to assess the potential utility of block-based programming (Scratch) for recruiting girls to computer science compared to traditional text-based programming (Python). Method One hundred and eighty-seven upper elementary and middle school students were surveyed to understand stereotype concern, sense of belonging, interest, and self-efficacy at baseline and after being shown each programming environment. Findings Results indicated that stereotype concern was high for girls across all three conditions. Significantly more girls than boys showed interest in learning computer science in Scratch compared to Python. Belonging, interest, and self-efficacy were inter-correlated for both genders. Implications Although girls demonstrated low self-efficacy across all conditions, more girls showed interest in learning to program through Scratch. Additionally, both girls and boys demonstrated higher self-efficacy in Scratch than in Python. This suggests that using block-based programming languages may be effective for recruiting girls to study computer science.

Student ability and difficulties with transfer from a block-based programming language into other programming languages: a case study in Colombia

ABSTRACT Background and context Transfer is a process where students apply their learning to different contexts. This process includes using their knowledge to solve problems with similar complexity, and in new contexts. In the context of programming, transfer also includes being able to understand and use different programming languages. Objective This study explores: (a) student ability to transfer from a block-based programming language into another block-based programming language; (b) student ability to transfer from a block-based programming language to a text-based programming language; (d) student ability to transfer their learning within the same programming language; and (d) the difficulties students had to transfer in these contexts. Method A group of students participating in a program called Coding For Kids explained three different programs in different programming languages during an interview protocol. The students used the programming language MakeCode, and worked on transfer activities in Scratch and Python. Findings The results suggest that while most students are able to transfer between block-based programming languages, most of them struggle to explain a program in a text-based programming language, and to solve a new coding challenge. Implications Instructional designers should consider different strategies to facilitate student transfer into professional programming languages, which is particularly difficult for non-English speakers.

Effects of a Block-Based Scaffolded Tool on Students’ Introduction to Hierarchical Data Structures

<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Contribution:</i> In this article, the authors present findings and insights on the efficacy of using an educational block-based programming (BBP) environment—Blocks4DS, to teach the binary search tree (BST). <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Background:</i> For a decade, BBP environments have been a hot topic in the computer science education (CSEd) community to promote interactive active learning of programming. However, little attention has been paid to BBP environments’ efficacy on nonintroductory courses like data structures and algorithms (DS&A). DS&A courses are challenging to students due to levels of abstraction that could be reduced by syntax-free features existing in BBP interfaces. <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Research Questions:</i> 1) Can undergraduate computing-major students learn about the BST using Blocks4DS? 2) Do undergraduate computing-major students understand better BSTs when learning with a BBP environment? and 3) How do undergraduate computing-major students perceive Blocks4DS for nonintroductory computer science (CS) topics? <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Methodology:</i> A mixed-method study was designed, using a control and intervention group with 83 first and second-year CS students, to evaluate the efficacy of Blocks4DS compared to traditional instructional methods (e.g., whiteboard and pseudocode). The authors evaluated its efficacy based on students’ conceptual understanding and perceptions. <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Findings:</i> It was found that, regardless of prior experience with text-based programming languages and instructional approaches, students introduced to the BST with Blocks4DS gained significant conceptual understanding, and performed as well as peers instructed with pseudocode. Also, 83.3% of students found the tool engaging and 72.3% found it useful to learn DS&A. This suggests that Blocks4DS can be used to teach DS&A.

NCCollab: collaborative behavior tree authoring in game development.

Game development is a collective process in which a variety of different professionals from different backgrounds collaborate together not only by means of conversational interaction but also collaborative participation, one of which is programming. While collaborative and pair programming solutions exist for text-based programming languages, visual programming has not enjoyed as much attention. These solutions would not only address advanced forms of business communication among team members but could find their use in distance learning, which would have been useful during the pandemic. In our work, we propose a solution for collaborative behavioral animation of NPCs using behavior trees through synchronous and asynchronous modes of collaboration. We conducted a user study with 12 moderately skilled game development university students who were placed in groups of two and engaged in joint fixed behavior tree development tasks using the synchronous and asynchronous modes and auxiliary features of live preview, access and restoration of previous states from behavior tree history, conflict resolution, and instant messaging. Participants also completed a control task where no collaboration was involved and auxiliary features were not available. Feedback form Creativity Support Index, a self-developed questionnaire, and a semi-structured interview were collected. Additionally, task completion times were logged. The results indicate that the two collaborative modes provide expected improvement over the control condition. No significant differences were found between the two collaborative modes. However, the semi-structed interview revealed that the synchronous mode could be useful for quick prototyping, while the asynchronous mode – for most other situations.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11042-022-12307-2.

Investigating the Transition from Block-based to Text-based Programming Techniques in Secondary Education in Greece

Nowadays computer programming is an essential skill that has grown in popularity in secondary education. In its block-based form, it is used to familiarize students with the basic concepts of programming before the students move on to text-based programming languages. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the transition from blocked-based to text-based programming techniques in secondary education. More specifically, four educational programming activities, which exploit the use of a block-based programming environment, were implemented in two classes of third grade Gymnasium students in Greece during the course of Informatics. The same educational activities were implemented again in the same classes with the use of a transitional block-to-text based programming environment aiming at normalizing the transition from block-based to text-based programming techniques. The implementation findings indicate a very positive feedback from the students’ side in understanding the association between block and text commands.