Teutonic Order Research Articles

The Competition for Cumania between Hungary and Bulgaria (1211–1247)

Because the alliance between the Cumans and Bulgaria was a danger both for Hungary and the Latin Empire, it was preferable for Hungary to extend its domination over Cumania. The Teutonic knights were settled in south-eastern Transylvania in 1211 to defend it against the Cumans, who, after 1214, became enemies also for Bulgaria. Besides the few fortresses built in the Bârsa land, there is no certain proof for an expansion of the Teutonic Order outside the Carpathians, and by consecquence of the Hungarian kingdom, in the period before the Mongol invasion of 1241. After the departure of the Teutonic knights in 1225, Cumania became the target of the Dominican mission which was present since around 1221 in Terra Severin, a north-Danubian Bulgarian possession. The Cuman bishopric was established in 1227. The subjection of these Cumans made useless the preservation of the Hungarian-Bulgarian alliance closed in 1214, and the consequence was the annexation of Terra Severin by Hungary, sometimes between 1228 and 1232, as a Banat. The final act of the Hungarian expansion in Cumania was the introduction of the title of King of Cumania by Bela IV in 1236. The region where it was established the bishopric of Cumania continued to be under the influence of the Church of Tărnovo, even after the end of the domination of the Bulgarian state in this north-Danubian territory. In 1241, the Cuman bishopric was destroyed by the Mongol invasion. Because the Golden Horde domination did not extend west of Olt in the first years after 1242, Bela IV tried to regain positions by summoning the Hospitaller Knights in 1247. Terra Severin remained a part of the Hungarian kingdom, but the function of Ban was abandoned or suspended. One mission of the Hospitallers was to extend the Hungarian domination in Cumania, in the regions which were then conquered by the Mongols. The Mongol domination prevented the emergence of a Cuman kingdom in Moldavia, vassal of Hungary. Only the decline of the Golden Horde made possible a new penetration of the Hungarian kingdom in the former Cumania, in 1345. The former Cumania entered in the new states created during the 14th century by the Romanians liberated from the Hungarian domination, Wallachia and Moldavia.

What has not yet been said about Prussian proper names in Polish lands

The research of historical proper names reveals the necessity to emphasize and link the cultural, social and political aspects that play a role in the development of onyms. It should be noted that the language and the names of inhabited settlements reflecting it developed within a certain single system of life, which can be divided only hypothetically. The oikonymy of the extinct language, when viewed as the development of linguistic phenomena, should be addressed from a systematic perspective. It is impossible to draw the line that would divide the starting point and the end point of the development of historical proper names. The rich empirical data, mostly coming from historical manuscript sources, show an ongoing process. We cannot tell the exact date when the Old Prussian language became extinct. However, it is clear that the Old Prussian names of inhabited settlements outlived the language and were more resistant to the processes of Germanization and Polonization than it has been thought to this day. Linguistic, social and cultural phenomena occur in the same domain and are mutually dependent. Politics has the power to change the name. The replacement of some of East Prussia’s native toponyms with Russian ones is a sad proof of that power put into practice. Nevertheless, some indigenous toponyms had enough strength to survive. The dimension of historical time has been introduced to the research and the significance of change for the survival of Old Prussian proper names in the processes of Germanization and Polonization has been highlighted. Polish onomasticians also study the extralinguistic meaning of onyms through the heritage of the Teutonic Order, as onyms are the witnesses of history in the environment of language contacts. The monumental work of Polish researchers Nazwy miejscowe Polski (Eng. Polish Place Names) is also noteworthy, however, the material that is included or excluded occasionally poses quite a few questions for the researchers of Old Prussian proper names. The article discusses more interesting cases of Old Prussian oikonymy on the territory of present-day Poland.

Medieval Shields of Europe and Rus’ (Construction, Military Symbolic Significance, Development)

The article considers the problem of the development of shields, the main element of medieval protective equipment, and an important military and heraldic symbol in Ukrainian medieval state of Rus’ and in Europe in general. The state of the research and the source base are outlined. The main trends in the development of the design and symbolic significance of shields in Europe during the Middle Ages are outlined. At the same time, emphasis was placed on sources concerning Rus’ lands and adjacent territories. The author draws attention to the need to compare archaeological, written and iconographic sources in one study. The study focuses on the most representative sources, especially those that can be to apply on material from the Rus’ lands. It is emphasized that the shield as a basic element of protective equipment during the Middle Ages, іn Rus’ lands largely developed in line with European trends. Which in turn makes it impossible to isolate local features about to beginning of the ХІІІ century. At the turn of the XII–XIII centuries in some regions of Eastern Europe, namely the Rus’-Baltic-Polish border, a relatively new type of shield is being formed, the so-called “protopaveza”. This in turn had a direct impact on the armaments of Rus’ and the Teutonic Order in the ХІІІ–ХІV centuries. The author analyzes the main interactions and borrowings of types of shields between different regions of Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages. It is noted that in the Ukrainian medieval state of Rus’, which was at the intersection of Eastern and Western military traditions, shields of both European types and the eastern “kalkan” could be used. However, given the available sources, it is safe to say that the European trend of development of this protective equipment had an advantage. The author came to the conclusion that the shields used in Rus’ and Europe in the X–XII centuries generally belonged to the same types. In particular, it is round, almond-shaped and triangular shields. The issue of shields of the XIII–XV centuries remains more complicated. During this period can be observed as the influence of Western Europe on Rus’, for example, the spread of the knight's “tarch”. And trends that began in Eastern Europe, namely the spread of pavises in the XIV–XV centuries.

Bulgarians, Cumans, Teutons, and Vlachs in the First Decades of the Thirteenth Century

The article refers to some aspects of the history of today’s Bulgarian and Romanian territories, going back to the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th century. First, the author emphasizes the impact of the Teutonic Order in Burzenland on Bulgarian-Cuman relations in the period under question. The article provides a different alternative viewpoint on the events of the second decade of the 13th century. Contrary to researchers who focus on the South and the Bulgarian-Latin conflict, the author seeks a solution to the problem by analyzing events in the North, reaching the lands of Burzenland region in Eastern Transylvania. He analyses the Teutonic-Cuman conflict of 1211–1222 and the success of the Teutons in Cumania after 1215. The author concludes that the dramatic change in the Bulgarian-Cuman relations could be explained by a new source of military and political influence that emerged in the second decade of the 13th century – the Teutonic Order. Next, the paper is aimed at the highly discussed and controversial issue of Bulgarian-Vlach relations during the rule of the Assenid dynasty. Based on the written sources, the author explains the mass presence of Vlachs in the actions of the first Assenids with specific social, economic and political factors in the last two decades of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th century.

Recepcja pruskiego przywileju inkorporacyjnego Kazimierza Jagiellończyka w Gdańsku w XV–XVI w.

In 1454, King Kazimierz IV Jagiellończyk incorporated Prussia intothe Kingdom of Poland. This act became the direct cause of the Thirteen Years’ War with the Teutonic Order. The privilege of incorporation (Privilegium incorporationis) of March 6, 1454, granted to representatives of the Prussian states at that time, became the most important source of rights that created the legal basis for the autonomy of Royal Prussia within the Polish‑Lithuanian Commonwealth. The original of the document was kept in the Toruń archives. Numerous copies from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries testify to a considerable interest in issues relating to the autonomy of Royal Prussia. This resulted from the actions of the Commonwealth of Poland aimed at limiting the political separateness of Prussia. The subject of the article is the question of knowledge of the content of the incorporation privilege in Gdańsk in the period immediately after the end of the Thirteen Years’ War (after 1466). In 1470, Gdańsk obtained a copy of the privilege (which has not survived to this day), sent from Toruń. A second copy is in a manuscript drawn up in 1485 in connection with the participation of envoys from Gdańsk in the congress of Prussian states in Toruń. During this congress, King Kazimierz Jagiellończyk demanded the levying of new taxes in Prussia to meet the needs of royal policy. This met with opposition from the Prussian states and led to a dispute with the King. Central to the matter were the rights of the Prussian states set out in the Privilegium incorporationis of 1454. It is to be assumed that the Gdańsk sources presented in the article are among the oldest identified copies of the incorporation privilege.

Why Did Lord Novgorod the Great Fall? The Novgorod Republic and Its Neighbors in 1470–1471

This article is devoted to the last decades of the existence of the independent Novgorod Republic and its fall. The events of 1470–1471, namely, the attempts to call into service a prince from Lithuania, to conclude an alliance with Lithuania and with the Teutonic Order in Livonia, and the campaign of Ivan III and the military defeat of Lord Novgorod the Great, have been considered on a wide background of social and political development of Novgorod the Great throughout the fifteenth century, in the context of the history of its foreign relations and the position of its neighbors, the organization of its armed forces, with a comprehensive account of a variety of sources (not only chronicles but also charters, epistolary and literary sources, etc.) and a rich research literature. In contrast to the approaches widespread in historiography, emphasis has been placed on contemporary reliable sources rather than on later ideological interpretations. Analysis of the chronicles also involves textual criticism. The authors have come to the conclusion that the defeat of the Novgorod Republic was caused not only by social, particularly religious, conflicts that were emphasized by the Moscow side but rather by the complex international situation, which the military and political organization of Novgorod was no longer consistent with, and the inability of the opposing pro-Moscow and pro-Lithuanian parties to offer a convincing ideological line and, consequently, strategy of action in these circumstances.

The First Campaign of Ivan III to Novgorod in 1471

In this paper, the alignment of political forces in Novgorod on the eve and during the campaign of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III is considered. The author points to the rivalry of the pro-Moscovian and pro-Lithuanian groups existing in various social strata within the Novgorod archdiocese and among the Novgorod aristocracy and “zhitny” people.—In this paper, the relationship between Moscow and Novgorod from the late 1450s to the early 1470s is studied. Based on new sources introduced by the author of this paper, it is established that the accession of Pskov, a “younger brother” of Novgorod, to Moscow did not take place in 1510, as stated in modern historiography, but in occurred in 1460. This radically changes the estimation of situation in Eastern Europe in the years 1460–1470. The transition of Pskov to under the rule of Moscow meant that a new and very large ruler appeared in the western lands of Russia, who could pose a threat to close states, such as Lithuania, Novgorod, and the Teutonic Order. The loss of Pskov influenced the position of Novgorod, which refused to pay the “black duty” as a tribute to the Golden Horde khans taking advantage of the illness of Grand Duke Vasilii II. The current situation threatened a big war. Both Novgorod and Moscow were looking for new allies. Moscow managed to neutralize at least the Livonian part of the Teutonic Order and the Golden Horde of Khan Akhmat. Novgorod was forced to enter into vassal relations with Casimir IV, King of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The transition of Novgorod from the power of Ivan III to the power of Casimir IV took place in the late autumn of 1470, but in the spring of 1471 the Moscow prince, having gathered great forces, began a war with Novgorod, in which he was supported by many Novgorodians who were economically connected with Moscow. The Novgorodians, having been defeated on the Shelon and Northern Dvina rivers, turned to Casimir IV for help, but their embassy was not allowed to visit him in Livonia. Left without military support, the Novgorodians went to peace. The Korostyn Treaty of August 11, 1471, prohibited Novgorod’s relations with Lithuanian princes and placed local courts under the control of Ivan III.

The First Chronicle of the Grand-Masters, the product and instrument of a nobiliary network within the Teutonic Order

The First Chronicle of the Grand-Masters, the product and instrument of a nobiliary network within the Teutonic Order

Review: Riemenschneider in Rothenburg: Sacred Space and Civic Identity in the Late Medieval City

Review: <i>Riemenschneider in Rothenburg: Sacred Space and Civic Identity in the Late Medieval City</i>

An Elite within Dutch Nobility. The Teutonic Order Bailiwick of Utrecht, 1640-18401

An Elite within Dutch Nobility. The Teutonic Order Bailiwick of Utrecht, 1640-18401

Synthesis of palaeoecological data from the Polish Lowlands suggests heterogeneous patterns of old-growth forest loss after the Migration Period

Human impact on Central European forests dates back thousands of years. In this study we reanalyzed 36 published pollen data sets with robust chronologies from Polish Lowlands to determine the patterns of large-scale forest decline after the Migration Period (fourth to sixth century CE). The study revealed substantial heterogeneity in the old-growth forest decline patterns. Using new high-resolution studies, we could better understand the timing of this transition related to increasing economic development. After the Migration Period, forest expansion continued until the seventh to ninth centuries cal. CE, when the dawn of Slavic culture resulted in large-scale forest decline, especially in north-western and north-central Poland. Later, forest decline was recorded mainly in north-eastern Poland and was related to Prussian settlements, including activities associated with the Teutonic Order, as well as with new settlements from the fourteenth century. The composite picture shows a varied spatio-temporal forest loss and transition towards the present-day, human activity dominated landscapes. However, some sites, such as in north-eastern Poland, are characterized by a less abrupt critical transition. The pristine nature of the oak-hornbeam forest had already been destroyed in Early Medieval times (eighth to ninth centuries cal. CE) and the potential for recovery was largely lost. Our study has confirmed previous assumptions that the decline of hornbeam across the Polish Lowlands may be an early indicator of local settlement processes, preceding severe forest loss, and establishment of permanent agriculture.

A divided diocese at the end of the Christian world. The case of the bishopric of Włocławek

The construction of the gothic cathedral church in Włocławek on the new site by the local bishops, after the former one was burned down by the knights of the Teutonic Order in 1329, coincides with a time of political consolidation of the Kingdom of Poland and a significant reinforcement of the power of Polish kings. For that frontier bishopric, situated in the northern part of the country, it was also a period of stabilization and strengthening of diocesan structures. The earlier history of this diocese, however, was marked by divisions and political rivalry, as well as by an interesting institutional dualism. In my paper, I focus my attention on the period between 1123/1124 – 1330 and on showing how local bishops and chapters built the ecclesiastical structures of this long politically fragmented diocese which initially encompassed some areas that had to be christianised. I also intend to show the ways in which Kuyavian bishops dealt with the problem of loyalty to the rulers, sometimes hostile to each other, while maintaining of interests and well-being of their bishopric.

The Baltic Story: A Thousand-Year History of Its Lands, Seas and Peoples by Caroline Boggis-Rolfe, and: Literary History and Popular Enlightenment in Latvian Culture by Pauls Daija

Reviewed by: The Baltic Story: A Thousand-Year History of Its Lands, Seas and Peoples by Caroline Boggis-Rolfe, and: Literary History and Popular Enlightenment in Latvian Culture by Pauls Daija Nicole Pohl Caroline Boggis-Rolfe, The Baltic Story: A Thousand-Year History of Its Lands, Seas and Peoples (Stroud: Amberley Publishing, 2019). Pp. 485; 65 illus. £25 cloth. Pauls Daija, Literary History and Popular Enlightenment in Latvian Culture (Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2017). Pp. 160. £58.99 cloth. The postcolonial lens of eighteenth-century studies has complicated our understanding of eighteenth-century Europe. Michele Espagne’s comprehension of colonialism as a lengthy process of mutual influence is one of many frameworks with which this complexity is approached. According to Espagne, the “entanglements” of countries and geopolitical regions across Europe transcended even the emerging nation states of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century—entanglements of history and cultural influences, underpinned by crosscutting dynasties, and cultural as well as trade exchanges. But even this Espagne’s “entanglement,” [End Page 391] like related frameworks of European colonialism in relation to “cultural zones,” frontiers, or border zones, cannot capture the complexity of the geopolitical and historical area of the Baltic. The Baltic Sea coastline extends to approximately 8000 km. And here begin the debates regarding the definition of this region. The umbrella term “Baltic states” is sometimes used to describe all the countries bordering the Baltic Sea, though after World War I, this region strictly included only Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Given its shared geography and economic history (the Hanseatic League), the Baltic region is also tightly connected to Germany and Scandinavia, and thus the geo-cultural zone of the North Sea. The German “Baltikum” (Balticum) refers to the regions in today’s Estonia and Latvia, where German nobility settled and ruled during the Northern Crusades and in the centuries following. The Baltic region borders Scandinavia, too, though only Estonia is part of the Nordic Council as an “adjacent area of interest.”1 The Baltic Sea States, according to the Council of Baltic Sea States, includes Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, and Sweden—stretching across Scandinavia, Central Europe, and Eastern Europe. Given the dilemmas above, it makes sense that Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann identifies the Baltic as intersectional, where different cultural zones overlap, intersect, and encounter each other.2 Boggis-Rolfe’s The Baltic Story: A Thousand-Year History of its Lands, Seas and Peoples heroically tries to tackle this complex history of the countries that share the shoreline along the Baltic Sea, weaving into this account the history of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), with particular attention to their emergence from the rule of the Teutonic Order, the Swedish and Russian Empires, as well as the Soviet Union. It is a book that offers a detailed survey of the histories of the relevant countries and houses of nobilities, and in doing so, shows very lucidly how entangled these histories are. The book begins with the foundation and influence of the Hanseatic League that, in conjunction with the Teutonic Order, ruled the Baltic region between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. What follows then are separate sections on individual countries, such as Poland/Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Denmark-Norway, Sweden, and Russia, following their history into modern times. For readers of this journal, the chapters on the Enlightenment period are of interest. Boggis-Rolfe charts the glory, successes, and downfall of some of the most prominent states of the region. She explains how a prolonged period of peace, commercial prosperity, and reform of the absolutist monarchy in Denmark-Norway characterized the 1700s in Denmark. Its downfall occurred during the Napoleonic wars after Britain attacked Copenhagen in 1807, and Denmark allied itself with Napoleon. Eventually, as part of the Peace of Kiel in 1814, Frederik VI had to cede Norway to the King of Sweden. The chapters on Russia follow the reigns of Peter the Great and the Empress Anna Ivanova, who both sought to make Russia a prominent naval power. Charles XII’s reign in Sweden is rightly described as a transition from “triumph to disaster.” The reign of this prominent military leader, politician, and reformer saw...

Przemiany narodowościowe w Kraju Kłajpedzkim w XX wieku

Population Transformations in the Klaipeda Region in the 20th CenturyThe Klaipeda Region is now an integral part of Lithuania. This was not, however, always the case; the region has a strong German history. (Its historical German name was Memelland, while in Lithuanian it was called Klaipedos Krastas.) Until 1525, the Klaipeda Region belonged to the Teutonic Order, but later changed hands several times. Initially, it belonged to the Duchy of Prussia (until 1701; and until 1657 was dependent as a fief of Poland), was later controlled by the Kingdom of Prussia (until 1871), and then finally became part of the German Empire (until 1919). For Germans, the province was a historical part of Eastern Prussia until 1945. For Lithuanians, the Klaipeda Region, as well as the area located along the north-eastern part of East Prussia on the south bank of the Neman River, was known as Little Lithuania (Lithuania Minor). The Lithuanians considered this territory to be their own ethnic land, which was wrongfully subjected to gradual Germanization. Before World War II this area was inhabited by Protestants who spoke Lithuanian or German. The 1920 census lists the territory’s population at 150,700, of which 71,000 declared German to be their first language, while 67,000 declared Lithuanian.The article first discusses the historical and political background of events in the Klaipeda Region in the first half of the 20th century. Next the author analyzes in a dynamic approach the demographic and ethnic structure of the population. His attention is later focused on the period of World War II when the province was incorporated into the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. In the Soviet period, a major part of the local population was expelled to Germany, while the remaining residents were identified as either Lithuanians or Russians such that the province was no longer dominated by the Protestant and German speaking population. The final part of the article deals with the present demographic and ethnic situation. As a result of the postwar political and economic migrations, a majority of the people in the province now identify themselves as Lithuanian and Catholic. Lithuania, owing to the port of Klaipeda, has now an unrestricted access to sea.

How Global was Medieval Prussia? An Analysis of the Barlaam and Josaphat Manuscript of the Teutonic Knights at the Turn of the Fifteenth Century

AbstractThe history of the southern Baltic region (Prussia) from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries has only received increased attention from ‘Western’ scholars in the last three decades. It has remained peripheral within traditional ‘Western’ scholarship on the premodern world. As a result, we are still left with a wide variety of questions, especially concerning the place of this area in the broader medieval world. This article addresses two of these questions: to what extent did medieval contemporaries in Prussia know about their broader world, and the peoples within it? How were people from these regions, such as the Indian Subcontinent or Africa, depicted, understood and communicated? One answer lay in the literature produced by the knights in the Teutonic Order. In the context of the plethora of studies on race and globality in the premodern world, the Baltic region has of yet received minimal attention. However, an investigation into the rich sources available reveals the presence in the region of the story of Barlaam and Josaphat, a Christian version of the life of the Buddha and the first example of ‘global literature’ associated with the Middle Ages. By analysing the surviving examples in the region, this article will place the region of Prussia within the new concept of the Global Middle Ages and reveal the perception of the southern realms of the world in one of medieval Europe's furthest cultural outposts.

Johann Marschalk von Frohburg - pierwszy wysoki dygnitarz z dzisiejszej Szwajcarii w pruskiej galezi Zakonu Krzyzackiego oraz bracia z Alzacji-Burgundii

Johann Marschalk von Frohburg (1320/1330-1391) came from Liestal in the far south-western fringes of the Reich, from an insignificant family who was looking after the stable of the Counts of Frohburg. The Teutonic Knights from his region hadn't played any role in Prussia so far. Very few written sources, the supposed dates of birth and the later carriercourses suggest that brother Johann gathered around him brethren of similar Alemannic dialect, in particular Werner von Tettingen and Konrad and Rudolf von Kyburg. At the same time, he began to forge an alliance with another crew from the south-west of the Reich, the Frankish. This cooperation paid off, because in 1387 brother Johann became the Great Trappearius. In May 1390 he was removed from his dignity. His countrymen from Alsace-Burgundy soon regained this office and gave it to the younger Werner. Johann Marschalk von Frohburg, who died in the following year, smoothed the way for other Aleman-speaking brethren in the Teutonic Order.

Color in Medieval Castle Architecture in Present-Day Poland and Czech Republic

Colors were ubiquitous in the medieval world, and castles were no exception. While in the eyes of most people their rich color schemes manifested power and wealth, some could also read the more nuanced messages these colors conveyed. The main objective of this paper is to discuss the use and role of color in the interiors of castles of medieval Bohemia and Poland. The picture is complemented by the analysis of color decorations of defensive residences of the Teutonic Order. The discussion takes into account the varying states of preservation and draws from the available written accounts. To present the most complete picture possible, we discuss royal residences, for which unfortunately limited data are available, as well as the better-preserved castles of dukes and knights. We discuss the identified iconographic programs and their chivalric, heraldic, and hagiographic motifs. Within the scope of our discussion are late forms of floral decorations, known as “green chambers”. The numerous examples presented in the paper prove that color was an important tool of visual social communication in castle architecture: it complemented the symbolism, and sometimes carried an independent message.

Czech Warriors on the Field of the Battle of Grunwald: Participation and Search for Contacts with Polond and Lithuania-Rus’

The article examines the problem of the participation of soldiers from Bohemia in the events of the Battle of Grunwald, both on the side of the Polish-Lithuanian forces and on the side of the Teutonic Order. The state of research of the topic, its place in the study of Grunwald is outlined. The urgency of studying the Czech military component in the armies of both sides was emphasized, given the need to further debunk the myth of the German danger and the pan-Slavic alliance. The author analyzes which Polish-Lithuanian and Order banners fought Czech mercenaries and names the names of their leaders known from sources. The “Czech” episodes in the work of Jan Dlugosz are analyzed, it is noted that the version of the participation of mercenaries from Bohemia in the battle reflects the negative attitude of the Polish chronicler to the Czech Republic. The issue of participation in the events of the war with the Order of the future leader of the Hussites Jan Žižka was raised, the opinion is defended that he fought in the ranks of the Polish-Lithuanian army. Attention is drawn to the involvement of Lithuanian-Rus’ Prince Zygmunt Korybutovych in the Battle of Grunwald, as well as to his further role in Czech-Rus’ relations in the wake of Hussite events. It is noted that the Battle of Grunwald was a decisive event that influenced the gradual withdrawal of Bohemia from the alliance with the Order, at least for those of its forces who later participated in the Hussite events and established contact with Wladyslaw II Jagiello and Vytautas. An episode of Jan Hus's correspondence with the Polish king is mentioned in the context of how Polish propaganda created the myth of its own peace victory immediately after the war. The author concludes that the events of the Battle of Grunwald partly determined for Bohemia its further geopolitical cooperation in Central and Eastern Europe and contributed to the restoration of communication with Lithuania, Poland and Rus’. At the same time, it was emphasized that Grunwald did not become the final severance of relations with the Order, with which Bohemia, like the Kingdom of Rus’, had had strong ties for centuries.

‘Mead from Riga’: The Trade and Consumption of a Hanse Cultural Good in the Late Medieval Baltic

Abstract This article represents the first study of the trade and consumption of mead, the alcoholic beverage brewed by fermenting honey with water, in the late medieval Baltic. Focusing on the Teutonic Order and the Hanse settlements in the region, the article argues that the consumption of mead was culturally embedded in German-speaking communities, heightening the status of the beverage, turning it into a vital resource in the exercise of power and influencing the government and administrations of cities and lordships. From a broader perspective, a close study of the drink underlines the cultural and economic significance attached to bee produce in the later medieval period, with ecology and cultural practice combining to make honey and its pre-eminent product, mead, a distinctive international export that enjoyed high esteem and significant demand across Hanse trading networks.

ЛЕННИКИ ИЗ НАДРОВИИ В ГОСУДАРСТВЕ ТЕВТОНСКОГО ОРДЕНА В 1340–1370 ГОДАХ

The article examines the condition (composition and functions) of lieges in Nadrovia – Prussian land that was included in the Teutonic order’s State in 1277. The research of acts and chronicles allowed the author to define the group of 46 persons, who were obliged to keep military service (to participate in companies against Grand Duchy of Lithuania, defend native lands, built and restore fortifications, etc.). The main part of lieges (44 persons) possessed land estates in size of 1,5–12 huffens. Among Nadrovians, there was a process of social differentiation that appeared in the same forms as in other Prussian lands: accumulation of land property by one person, division of estates, heirless property that appeared in the conditions of reduction of free lands qualified for cultivation. To minimize negative consequences of this process, the Order and the Church gave the permission to use nearest grounds, compensated the loss of the land property, and imposed penalty (vergeld) for the damage to life and health of Prussians. The formation of fief system in Nadrovia as well as appearance of settlements before the Order’s conquest was associated with waterways (rivers Pregel, Inster, Agrapp, etc.) that was caused by the significance of this type of communications in this wild district covered by woods. At the same time, in contrast to the settlements of the 10th – 13thcenturies, fiefs concentrated in the western part of Nadrovia due to the formation here of the system of Order’s castles as military and administrative centers. By these conditions, the most stable cultivated territories were such lands that were settled before Order’s conquest and still tilled after it because near location to the new centers.