Capercaillie Research Articles

Increased DNA typing success for feces and feathers of capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) and black grouse (Tetrao tetrix).

Noninvasive sampling, for example, of droppings or feathers, is a promising approach for molecular genetic studies on endangered and elusive animal species. Yet, such specimens are known for containing only minute amounts of DNA, resulting in lower typing success rates relative to analyses on fresh tissues such as muscle or blood. Furthermore, artefactual signals as well as contamination are more likely to occur when DNA is limited. To increase the reliability of DNA typing from noninvasive samples, optimized DNA extraction and polymerase chain reaction protocols were developed, taking advantage of developments in the forensic field aiming at successful molecular genetic analysis of DNA templates being low in quality and quantity. In the framework of an extensive monitoring project on population dynamics of capercaillie and black grouse in the Tyrolean Alps, feces samples and molted feathers from both species were collected. On a subset comprising about 200 specimens of either species, eight polymorphic short tandem repeat (STR) markers were analyzed to test these improved protocols. Besides optimizing DNA yields, both lowered sample consumption and reduced hands‐on time were achieved, and the rates of informative profiles amounted to 90.7% for capercaillie and 92.4% for black grouse. Similarly, high success rates had not been achieved in earlier studies and demonstrate the benefit of the improved methodology, which should be easily adaptable for use on animal species other than those studied here. The STR genotypes were not only powerful enough to discriminate among unrelated birds but also appeared fit for telling apart closely related animals, as indicated by Pi and Pisib values. The software package allelematch aided analysis of genotypes featuring possible dropout and drop‐in effects. Finally, a comparison between molecular genetic and morphology‐based species‐of‐origin determination revealed a high degree of concordance.

The importance of individual heterogeneity for interpreting faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in wildlife studies

Abstract As a non‐invasive and inexpensive method, the use of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) analysis in wildlife research is increasing. Various environmental factors have been shown to influence FGM levels, or faecal corticosteroid metabolites (FCM) levels in birds, but most studies do not account for inter‐individual variance, which we hypothesized may substantially affect results. We combined FCM analysis with genetic analysis to identify the sex and individual's identity in samples collected in three consecutive winters; with repeated samples per individual, across the entire range of an endangered population of capercaillie Tetrao urogallus in south‐western Germany. Using generalized additive mixed models, we modelled FCM levels as a function of sex, season and environmental covariates at two spatial scales: location and home range. We compared two models: one including information on the individual animal and the other excluding this information (i.e. naïve model) to assess the influence of individual heterogeneity on the results obtained. Models accounting for inter‐individual differences explained 44.0% and 45.1% (at the location and home‐range scale respectively), while only very little (4.0% and 5.1%, respectively) was explained by the environmental predictors. When ignoring individual effects, the model results changed considerably with other, previously non‐informative predictors, becoming significant. In the full models, accounting for inter‐individual variance, weather conditions had no effect at either scale. FCM levels were negatively correlated with habitat quality at the sampling location, while human recreation at the home‐range scale led to elevated FCM levels. In the naïve models, two additional predictors appeared significant: one weather variable at the local scales and two at the home‐range scale. In all models, seasonal FCM patterns differed significantly between males and females. Synthesis and applications. By combining faecal corticosteroid metabolites (FCM) analysis with genetic individual assessment, we demonstrate that individual heterogeneity can explain most of the variance in faecal corticosteroid metabolites levels and that ignoring this information can lead to erroneous conclusions when testing for environmental stressors. We therefore stress the importance of identifying individuals when studying faecal corticosteroid metabolites in wildlife and recommend combining faecal corticosteroid metabolites analyses with genetic analyses to adequately address this issue.

Оценка термогумидных условий в ареалах широко распространенных видов птиц (на примере глухаря, род Tetrao)

Оценка термогумидных условий в ареалах широко распространенных видов птиц (на примере глухаря, род Tetrao)

The population status of Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus in Scotland during winter 2015–16

ABSTRACTCapsule: The population size of Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus in Scotland was estimated at 1114 individuals with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of 805–1505.Aim: To produce an updated estimate of Capercaillie population size in Scotland, with improved precision from, but retaining comparability with, previous surveys.Methods: A random sample of 2 km long line transects was surveyed throughout the current range of the Capercaillie, during winter 2015–16, with sampling in three separate strata. Multi-covariate distance sampling was used to fit detection functions to the Capercaillie data, deriving national, regional and sex-specific estimates of density and abundance.Results: Across 741 transects, 136 Capercaillie were recorded in 120 separate encounters, giving rise to a population estimate of 1114 individuals (95% CIs: 805–1505). This estimate is 13% lower than that from the previous survey in 2009–10 but the difference is not statistically significant. Most of the population (83%) was estimated to occur in Strathspey, with much smaller numbers in the rest of the range.Conclusion: The Capercaillie population in Scotland remains at a critically low level. Further evidence of decline in edge of range subpopulations raises serious concern over the viability of Capercaillie in these areas, whereas numbers appear stable in the core of the range in Strathspey. The use of a revised survey design, with greater sampling in the core of the range, improved estimate precision.

Мотивы передачи / получения вербальной магии и их отражение в лексических единицах (на материале мифологических рассказов Пермского края)

The article examines the ways of transference of verbal magic which is considered as part of the magical and ritual tradition of the Russians in Perm Krai. Data collected and stored in the folklore and dialectology archives of the Department of Philology of Perm State University, texts of the folklore and ethnography corpus and monographs were used as the main sources for this article.Russian mythological narratives of Perm Krai are shown to have several motifs connected with special conditions and ways of transference of verbal magic to a neophyte so that he/she could influence people and the world around. The first group of motifs describes the conditions of transference and / or receival of sacral texts. The second group deals with the ways how this transference is performed. Lastly, the article shows the motif of how a person with magical powers transfers their supernatural abilities and knowledge to others on his / her deathbed.The most common group of motifs are those depicting the act of special supernatural training that a neophyte must undergo in a Russian bathhouse at midnight. The Devil usually takes on a zoomoprhic appearance (such as a dog, a frog, a toad, sometimes a snake, a crocodile, a pig, a wood grouse, a pike). Most frequently, before this contact with the Devil, the neophyte must read a book called Chyornaya magiya (Black Magic). This challenge is so difficult for the psyche of the person undergoing it that some people fail to complete their “learning” process and go mad.As comparative analysis shows, the above described motifs are also found in the narratives of the Russian North. However, the motif of a neophyte who is to establish a contact with a mythical creature in a Russian bathhouse is more vividly presented in the mythological narrative of Perm Krai.The role of articulated text in the magical ritual should not be taken lightly. Its importance can be seen not only in the thematic group of mythological lexis – lexemes that denote a sacred or magical text (Russian words molitva, prigovor, slova etc.), influence on something or someone with the help of verbal magic (Russian words govorit’, sheptat’), people who use sacred or magical texts in their professional activities (Russian words slovnik, sheptar’) – but also in set expressions denoting the act of transference / receival of verbal magic (and magical abilities on the whole) (peredat’ / peredavat’, perenyat’ / perenimat’, prinyat’ / prinimat’ – slova, molitvy, znaniya, dar, silu, chertey).

ХРЕБЕТНІ ТВАРИНИ КІВЕРЦІВСЬКОГО НАЦІОНАЛЬНОГО ПРИРОДНОГО ПАРКУ «ЦУМАНСЬКА ПУЩА»

Introduction. Current state survey of Vertebrate animals of the Kivertsi National Park «Tsumanska pushcha» carried out during the 1979-2018. Our previous publications on vertebrates concerned more territory than the current National Park, and some published data from others researchers contained errors or related to adjacent territories. In addition, we found other species of vertebrates that were not registered in previous years. Therefore, it became necessary to specify the species composition of vertebrates and others data about them on the territory of the National Park. Purpose. The main aim was to establish a species composition, to clarify the status of stay and the rarity of vertebrate animals on the modern territory of Kivertsi National Park «Tsumanska pushcha», as well as their distribution in the basic faunal complexes. Methods. In Vertebrate animals studies common methods were used and rare species distinguished according to national and international criteria. Status of species of animals was determined on basis of all available observations of them. Status of breeding birds was established the by the international breeding assessment system – category A (possible breeding), B (probable breeding) C (confirmed breeding). Similar criteria for establishing the status was used for others classes of vertebrates. All data is processed in the Excel 2003 computer program in specially designed tabular forms. Results. The article presents the results of Vertebrate animal studies on the modern territory of the Kivertsi National Park «Tsumanska pushcha», which was conducted by author in 1979-2018 (before and after its found in 2015). There are 226 species of Vertebrate (fishes – 23, amphibians – 11, Reptiles – 7, Birds – 150 and Mammals – 35).Among them, 188 species are reproduced (113 – confirmed, 62 – probable, 13 – possible), 30 – passings, 3 – vagrants, 3 – summerings (birds, which registered in the breeding period, but without sings of nesting) and 2 – disappeared (Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus and European mink Mustela lutreola). For all Vertebrate animals, the rarity component is identified (35 species included on Red Data Book of Ukraine, 11 – European Red List and 11 – IUCN Red List) and the structure of belonging to main faunal complexes is considered. The largest number of species (124) is registered in forest faunal complexes (among them 117 in mixed forests or its parts, 96 – deciduous, 89 – coniferous), less in reservoirs (79) and meadows (41) and the smallest in marshes (34). Originally. The article uses author’s development of the tables for generalization of the results of research of the Vertebrate that are recommended for used in institutions of the natural-reserve fund and research institutions. Conclusion. According to results of our studies of vertebrate animals on the modern territory of the Kivertsi National Park «Tsumanska pushcha», their species composition, status, the rare components and distribution in the main habitats are specified. This data are the basis for further research in the National Park.

Does Beginning of Spring Represent a Critical Period in Annual Cycle of Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus, Tetronidae, Galliformes)?

In European Russia, the clutch size of capercaillie varies depending on the spring density of population and simultaneously on combination of different variants of vegetation that reflect influence of the various environmental factors. Late snow thawing, dense vegetation, scarcity of field layer foods or high density of birds seem to aggravate the competition for limited food resources and nesting sites. These factors permit to consider (1) the beginning of spring as one of the critical periods in annual cycle of Capercaillie determining realization of the potential fecundity of hens, and (2) mean clutch size as the relative monitoring index of saturation by birds of the natural carrying capacity.

Conservation Genetics of the CapercaillieTetrao urogallusin Poland — Diversity of Mitochondrial DNA in Remnant and Extinct Populations

Human-induced changes in the natural environment impact upon a wide variety of genetic processes at all levels of population structure. Insight into these processes is now achieved by analyses of genetic diversity allowing the past and present condition of populations to be assessed and compared. Given its severe fragmentation and small size, the population of the Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus in Poland can be regarded as especially prone to gene-pool alteration. Moreover, this is a region of Europe in which different genetic lineages of the Capercaillie may be present, ensuring that certain conservation decisions may be even more difficult than they otherwise would be. Bearing the above in mind, we decided to study polymorphism of the mitochondrial DNA Control Region (mtDNA CR) in remnant and extinct populations of the Capercaillie in Poland. The extinct population was represented by samples from birds hunted in the Lower Silesian Forest (SW Poland) between 1951–1962. We compared sequences obtained with data from the large, continuous population present in Russia and Scandinavia. Analysing 331 bp of mtDNA CR for 168 individuals, we identified 24 haplotypes, among which only 6 had not been reported previously in the species according to GenBank. Our data confirmed a previous suggestion regarding the genetic structure of the species in Poland, i.e. that birds from Augustow Forest (NE Poland) are related to Russian and Scandinavian populations, constituting a part of the lowland group within the boreal lineage. The Carpathian population is in turn confirmed as an independent genetic group within the boreal lineage, while specimens from the Solska Forest (SE Poland) prove to be highly differentiated from birds in other Polish populations; most likely because they derive from — or have been connected via gene flow with — birds present in the Balkans. Further genetic analysis is necessary to resolve this evolutionary relationship between Capercaillies from south-eastern Poland and those of the Balkans. Where practice is concerned, the overall advice is that three Conservation Units are to be recognised in Poland. In addition to those, the extinct population from the Lower Silesian Forest has been deemed part of the lowland group within the boreal lineage, albeit a distinctive one, given the possibility of gene exchange with Carpathian birds. We further suggest that some aspect of this extinct population's genetic diversity reflects an uncontrolled process of reintroduction taking place in the past.

Intestinal Parasites as Potential Factors in the Dynamics of a Fluctuating Forest Grouse Community

Finnish populations of the capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, black grouse Lyrurus tetrix and hazel grouse Tetrastes bonasia have been fluctuating in synchronous cycles. Mechanisms behind these fluctuations are not well known. Parasites may regulate their host population under certain conditions. The Finnish grouse harbour several species of intestinal parasites which may affect the populations. We studied the possibility of parasitic regulation in Finnish forest grouse using intestinal samples from hunted grouse collected in 1995–2000 and annual counts of grouse densities. We found that abundance and prevalence of the nematode Ascaridia compar affected negatively the grouse-community growth rate (all three species combined) and annual survival of grouse. In years of grouse density decline, the prevalence and abundance of A. compar was considerably higher than in other years. On the species level, this dynamic was most clearly seen in the capercaillie. The findings suggest the possibility of parasitic regulat...

Mixed-severity natural disturbances promote the occurrence of an endangered umbrella species in primary forests

Abstract Primary forests are characterized by high vertical and horizontal stand diversity, which provides habitat for a diverse range of species with complex habitat requirements. Detailed knowledge of related ecological processes and habitat development of primary forest species are essential to inform forest management and biodiversity conservation decisions, but relationships are not well documented. We collected dendrochronological data and inventoried numerous structural elements in permanent plots throughout the primary temperate forests within the Carpathian Mountains. We fit and compared multiple predictive models to quantify the importance of 200 years of natural disturbance dynamics on the occurrence probability of an umbrella species – the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus). We showed that a mixed-severity disturbance regime ranging from low through moderate to high severity disturbances is required to generate diverse forest habitats suitable for capercaillie. The variation in natural disturbance severity and its timing promoted key structural habitat elements, such as low natural regeneration density, low mature tree density, high ground vegetation cover, availability of forest gaps, and abundance of standing deadwood. This study demonstrates the importance of natural disturbance in maintaining the variety of conditions necessary to support primary forest specialist species. Managers of protected areas should be mindful that natural disturbances generate habitat for the capercaillie in mountain Norway spruce forests. Further intervention is unnecessary. Conservation planning and forest reserve design should shift focus to the large-scale spatial requirements needed to ensure that a wide range of forest developmental phases are represented in protected areas.

Range loss of a threatened grouse species is related to the relative abundance of a mesopredator

AbstractMammalian generalist mesopredators can reach high densities in forest–farmland mosaic landscapes in the absence of top‐down control. The abundance of generalist mesopredators is a potentially limiting factor for prey populations, especially ground breeding birds such as grouse. High mesopredator abundance has been associated with reduced reproductive success in grouse. There is little evidence, however, on how variation in mesopredator abundance affects grouse population trends while considering other environmental covariates. We make use of range maps spanning two decades (1993–2013) of a locally threatened capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) population in the Black Forest, Germany, to assess whether range loss of grouse in forest–farmland mosaic landscapes can be explained by a gradient in red fox abundance, while accounting for other potential determinants of grouse range loss. We show that capercaillie range persistence was favored by increasing snow cover, decreasing index of red fox abundance, slightly increasing index for soil quality, and increasing population connectivity. Red fox abundance had the largest relative impact in areas already facing an elevated capercaillie extinction risk due to unsuitable site conditions, dense forests, or lack of connectivity, but the negative effect was compensated under otherwise optimal conditions. This indicates that the relative importance of predator abundance for prey population dynamics is mediated by environmental attributes, emphasizing the threat to remnant populations but also indicating potential for species conservation.

Non-invasive genetics outperforms morphological methods in faecal dietary analysis, revealing wild boar as a considerable conservation concern for ground-nesting birds.

Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) and other grouse species represent conservation concerns across Europe due to their negative abundance trends. In addition to habitat deterioration, predation is considered a major factor contributing to population declines. While the role of generalist predators on grouse predation is relatively well known, the impact of the omnivorous wild boar has remained elusive. We hypothesize that wild boar is an important predator of ground-nesting birds, but has been neglected as a bird predator because traditional morphological methods underestimate the proportion of birds in wild boar diet. To distinguish between different mammalian predator species, as well as different grouse prey species, we developed a molecular method based on the analysis of mitochondrial DNA that allows accurate species identification. We collected 109 wild boar faeces at protected capercaillie leks and surrounding areas and analysed bird consumption using genetic methods and classical morphological examination. Genetic analysis revealed that the proportion of birds in wild boar faeces was significantly higher (17.3%; 4.5×) than indicated by morphological examination (3.8%). Moreover, the genetic method allowed considerably more precise taxonomic identification of consumed birds compared to morphological analysis. Our results demonstrate: (i) the value of using genetic approaches in faecal dietary analysis due to their higher sensitivity, and (ii) that wild boar is an important predator of ground-nesting birds, deserving serious consideration in conservation planning for capercaillie and other grouse.

Conservation in the southern edge of Tetrao urogallus distribution: Gene flow despite fragmentation in the stronghold of the Cantabrian capercaillie

The Cantabrian capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus cantabricus) is an endangered subspecies of the Western capercaillie, endemic of northern Spain, inhabiting the south-western limit of the species range. Assessing genetic variability and the factors that determine it is crucial in order to develop an effective conservation strategy. In this work, non-invasive samples were collected in some of the best preserved areas inhabited by Cantabrian capercaillie. Nine microsatellite loci and a sex-specific marker were analysed. We included five zones, separated by valleys with different levels of habitat modifications. No evidence of genetic clustering was found which suggests that fragmentation and development in the area do not act as barriers to gene flow. Nonetheless, significant differences among sampling zones were encountered in terms of their allelic frequencies (global F ST = 0.035, p = 0.001). Pairwise F ST comparisons showed differences between all sampling zones included, except between the two ones located in the South (Degana and Alto Sil). These findings, along with the results of individual based genetic differences, indicate that gene flow among sampling zones might be at least slightly compromised, except between the two zones located in the South. Despite this, the sampling zones seem to exchange migrants at a rate that prevents genetic differentiation to the point of creating clusters. Our results show that the capercaillies in the study area constitute a single interbreeding group, which is an important piece of information that provides support to better understand the dynamics of this endangered subspecies.

Changes of Eggshell Characteristics during Embryo Development in Western Capercaillie (Tetrao Urogallus)

The influence of a developing bird embryo on eggshell thinning is well known, however this phenomenon has been described mainly for poultry, and in wild birds is poorly understood. This study focussed on Capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus), in which the effect of a developing embryo on the change of eggshell thickness has not been described. However, problems relating to a large number of dead embryos and eggs cracking during incubation are observed in captive breeding centres giving us the opportunity to test how the developing embryo affects the eggshell and thereby its properties, including eggshell strength and thickness. In total, 196 unhatched eggs, including 146 infertile and 50 eggs with embryos which died at various stages of development, were analysed in relation to eggshell shape, thickness and strength. Moreover, 102 posthatched eggshells were also examined. Although the strength of eggshell was affected by egg shape and shell thickness, contrary to expectations, the stage of embryonic development had no significant influence on eggshell strength. As has been demonstrated in other species, etching of eggshells by the developing embryo reduces shell thickness in Capercaillie but it has minimal effect on the strength of the eggshell. Egg viability is not compromised during the later stages of development by contact incubation with the female. The eggshell of infertile eggs or eggs containing early-dead embryos were 10% thicker than posthatched eggshells and eggs with late-dead embryos, confirming that eggshell thinning in Capercaillie is typical for precocial species.

Outdoor recreation causes effective habitat reduction in capercaillie Tetrao urogallus: a major threat for geographically restricted populations

Outdoor recreation inflicts a wide array of impacts on individual animals, many of them reflected in the avoidance of disturbed areas. The scale and spatial extent, however, at which wildlife populations are affected, are mostly unclear. Particularly in geographically isolated populations, where restricted habitat availability may preclude a relocation to undisturbed areas, effective habitat reduction may remain underestimated or even unnoticed, when animals stay in disturbed areas and only show small‐scale responses. Based on telemetry data, we investigated the spatial and seasonal effects of outdoor recreation – in relation to landscape and vegetation conditions – on western capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, considering two scales, home range and within‐home range habitat selection. We determined the distance‐thresholds up to which recreation infrastructures were avoided and estimated the extent of affected habitat for the isolated Black Forest (southwestern Germany) study population. While outdoor recreation did not affect home range selection, strong effects on habitat use within the home range were detected: distance to recreation infrastructure (hiking and cross‐country skiing trails, ski pistes) was the main determinant of habitat selection in winter; in summer, mountain bike trails and hiker's restaurants were avoided up to an average distance of 145 m (CI: 60–1092 m). Around winter‐infrastructure, relative avoidance was recorded up to 320 m (CI: 36–327 m), it was reduced, however, when dense understory provided visual cover. Of the entire population area, between 8–20% (summer) and 8–40% (winter) were affected by outdoor recreation, mainly in the high altitudes. Even without evident large‐scale shifts in species distribution, local‐scale avoidance of outdoor recreation can substantially contribute to effective habitat reduction. Based on our results we recommend a general reduction in recreation infrastructure density in key habitats, the establishment of undisturbed wildlife refuges with a diameter of at least 800 m, as well as enhancing visual protection by maintaining a strip of dense understory along trails.

Conservation genetics of the capercaillie in Poland - Delineation of conservation units.

The capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is one of Poland's most endangered bird species, with an estimated population of 380–500 individuals in four isolated areas. To study these natural populations in Poland further, more than 900 non-invasive genetic samples were collected, along with samples from 59 birds representing large, continuous populations in Sweden and Russia; and from two centres in Poland breeding capercaillie. Microsatellite polymorphism at nine loci was then analysed to estimate within-population genetic diversity and genetic differentiation among populations. The results confirmed that isolation of populations and recent decreases in their sizes have reduced genetic diversity among capercaillie in Poland, with all the country’s natural populations found to be experiencing the genetic after-effects of demographic bottlenecks. The results of analyses of genetic differentiation and structure further suggest the presence of a 'lowland' cluster (encompassing birds of the Augustowska and Solska Primaeval Forests in Poland, and of Sweden and Russia), and a Carpathian cluster. Capercaillie from Sweden and Russia are also found to differ markedly. The Polish lowland populations seem more closely related to birds from Scandinavia. Our genetic analysis also indicates that the stocks at breeding centres are of a high genetic diversity effectively reflecting the origins of founder individuals, though identification of ancestry requires further study in the case of some birds.Overall, the results sustain the conclusion that the Polish populations of capercaillie from the Carpathians and the lowlands should be treated as independent Management Units (MUs). This is to say that the breeding lines associated with these two sources should be maintained separately at breeding centres. The high level of genetic differentiation of birds from the Solska Primaeval Forest suggests that this population should also be assigned the status of independent MU.

Landscape genetics highlight the importance of sustainable management in European mountain spruce forests: a case study on Western capercaillie

The mountain spruce forests of the Western Carpathians have experienced a dramatic deterioration in the last decades increasing the landscape fragmentation. This considerably affected the Western capercaillie population recently surviving within small habitat patches surrounded by unfavourable habitats. Our study shows that the long-term isolation resulted in genetic differentiation with decreasing trend in allelic richness towards the most adjacent western subpopulations. We evaluated dispersal possibilities within the landscape and identified barriers and the most critical corridors between genetically distinct subpopulations. Landscape genetic analysis confirmed that the isolation by environmental features explains the observed genetic patterns better than straight geographical distance. We highlight the urgent need for an active conservation management in the critical habitats where dispersion might be constrained or “bottlenecked” in order to ensure gene flow within the fragmented capercaillie metapopulation of the Western Carpathian mountain forests.

Three-dimensional habitat structure and landscape genetics: a step forward in estimating functional connectivity.

Estimating connectivity among fragmented habitat patches is crucial for evaluating the functionality of ecological networks. However, current estimates of landscape resistance to animal movement and dispersal lack landscape-level data on local habitat structure. Here, we used a landscape genetics approach to show that high-fidelity habitat structure maps derived from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data critically improve functional connectivity estimates compared to conventional land cover data. We related pairwise genetic distances of 128 Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) genotypes to least-cost path distances at multiple scales derived from land cover data. Resulting β values of linear mixed effects models ranged from 0.372 to 0.495, while those derived from LiDAR ranged from 0.558 to 0.758. The identification and conservation of functional ecological networks suffering from habitat fragmentation and homogenization will thus benefit from the growing availability of detailed and contiguous data on three-dimensional habitat structure and associated habitat quality.

Occurrence of dispersive stages of endoparasites in the faeces of European Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) from capercaillie breeding centres in Poland

The western capercaillie breeding program is aimed at the restoration and reintroduction of this bird species in Poland. Parasitic invasions may be one of the factors limiting the breeding effects. The aim of the paper is to present the parasitologic situation in aviary breeding centres in Leżajsk and Wisła Forest Divisions. The study material included 38 samples of faeces of western capercaillie taken from the floor of the aviaries in the breeding centres in Leżajsk and Wisła Forest District. The faeces were studied using flotation, decantation and the quantitative McMaster methods. The presence of only two parasitic genera was detected. Based on the results of morphological analysis, the coccidia was classified as Eimeria lyruri, while nematode as the species Capillaria (syn. Aonchoteca) caudinflata. The total average prevalence of parasitic invasion in the studied samples was 60.5%. In both studied aviaries, the dominating invasion was coccidiosis, with average prevalences of 55.3%. The eggs of nematodes from Capillaria were found in 34.2% of all studied samples. Monoinvasion was present in 31.6% while the mixed invasion of coccidiosis and capillariasis was found in 28.9% cases. Dispersive forms of the parasites were significantly more frequent in the faeces of hens (77.3%) than of cocks (37.5%). No statistically significant differences in invasion extensiveness between the two breeding centres were found. The invasions of both types of parasites in the studied flocks were of a low level (the average OPG was 268.2 while the average EPG of Capillaria sp. was 164.3). The average OPG/EPG values in both breeding centres were similar, which was confirmed by student t-test. Higher values of OPG/EPG were found in samples coming from hens than in those coming from cocks but the differences were insignificant.

Using drones as a monitoring tool to detect evidence of winter sports activities in a protected mountain area

The capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is a mountain grouse species listed in the Red Lists of Switzerland and other countries of Europe. As a consequence of its conservation status, human activities are restricted in most of its remaining habitats. One sub-population of the capercaillie is located in the Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The margins of one of its territories are increasingly used by snowshoe hikers and ski tourers at the capercaillie’s most vulnerable time, during winter. In order to identify and monitor possible interferences, we tested whether drones can help to detect snowshoe and ski tourer tracks in the winter landscape and whether there is any reaction of wildlife to the drones. Results indicate that certain environmental conditions are needed to carry out accurate drone flights, but that with optimal technical and aeronautical settings, it is possible to gain aerial images that allow winter activities by humans to be identified, and even quantified. No disturbances to wildlife were identified. The findings indicate that drones can be used as a low-cost monitoring tool for detecting human winter activities in remote places, which represent a fast-growing threat to wildlife in mountain areas.