Tetra Phenyl Research Articles

Molecular engineering of tetraphenyl-based hole transporting materials to enhance photovoltaic properties of perovskite solar cells

Perovskite photovoltaic cells have lately gained appeal due to their excellent operational efficiency, photophysical properties, and high dielectric constant. Five novel hole transport materials namely TADM1–TADM5 were devised to improve power conversion efficiency (PCE) of Perovskite solar cells (PSCs). These molecules have tetraphenyl (TP) as a typical core, donor, and different acceptor units connected via a thiophene spacer. Under the framework of DFT theory, the B3LYP functional along with the 6–31 G basis set was utilized to study their geometries, molecular electrostatic potential, reorganization energies, the density of states, quantum chemical parameters, transition density matrix, binding energies, and charge transfer properties. All the designed HTMs (TADM1–TADM5) displayed excellent photovoltaic properties due to lower (Eg) varying (1.94–2.54 eV), small binding energies (0.04–0.36 eV), and high dipole moments (12.89 D to 26.93 D) that enhanced their electron charge transfer behavior. Small reorganization energy (RE) values for holes and electrons resulted in significant charge mobility. All the designed HTMs (TADM1-TADM5) have higher VOC (1.30–1.43 V) and power conversion efficiency (23.70–26.27%) than the reference molecule SMeTAD (20.94%). Consequently, all of the modelled molecules (TADM1-TADM5) demonstrate that using acceptor moieties is an effective method for achieving acceptable optoelectronic characteristics and outstanding efficiency.

Optical studies of carbon nano dots based composites for waste water remedy

The critical probing in order to acquire a sustainable, biocompatible and provident hybrid molecular system incorporating the renewable and abundant sources such as solar energy for environmental remediation and energy conversion is raving far and wide. The hybrid nanocomposite of synthesised Carbon Nano Dots (CNDs) and Zinc Methyloxy Tetra Phenyl Porphyrin (Zn4OMeTPP) are a supramolecular construct and high order self-assemblies which are extremely stable, easily integrable, environmental friendly, cost effective and possess appreciable tunable optoelectronic properties which are necessitated for targeting applications of streaming significance like water remediation. The constituents are synthesised via simple solution phase method and the attention has been converged on optical studies of the composite for which UV–Vis and Raman spectroscopy has been carried out. Prior to that, morphological studies have been done using XRD and FTIR. The upshot manifested by the studies is that the synthesised composite can prove to be a promising candidate for photocatalytic applications in either its sheer or hybrid form.

Rational Design of High-Performance Cationic Organic Network Adsorbents.

Development of high-performance ionic organic network (ION) adsorbents is of great importance for water remediation. However, the research on IONs is still nascent, especially, the design philosophy regarding contaminant adsorption has rarely been explored. In this contribution, we optimized the adsorption efficiency of IONs by increasing the density of charged sites and improving their accessibility. We first produced a new cationic organic network (CON), CON-LDU4, with a high density of positive sites via synthesis from tetra(4-pyridyl)ethene. Compared to the analogue CON-LDU2 that synthesized from tetra(4-(4-pyridyl)phenyl)ethene, CON-LDU4 exhibited higher efficiency in adsorption of methyl blue, indicating that the higher ionic density results in the higher adsorption efficiency. To further improve the accessibility of the active sites, another new CON material (CON-LDU5) was synthesized by employing a hard template. CON-LDU5 exhibited a larger specific surface area than CON-LDU4, with clearly enhanced adsorption efficiency. Finally, CON-LDU5 was used to capture CrO42- ions in water with fast adsorption kinetics (k2 = 0.0328 g mg-1 min-1) and high adsorption capacity (369 mg g-1).

Multifunctional luminophores with dual emitting cores: TADF emitters with AIE properties for efficient solution- and evaporation-processed doped and non-doped OLEDs

• Three dual emitting core emitters are developed by coupling single core emitters. • The emitters possess high absorption coefficients and PLQY values in neat films. • Photophysical investigations demonstrate both AIE and TADF properties. • Highly efficient OLEDs with ultra-low efficiency roll-offs are achieved. Three novel emitters with dual emitting cores, namely 3,3′,5,5′-tetra(triphenylamine-4-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2,2′,6,6′-tetracarbonitrile (DDTPAIPN), 3,3′-di(triphenylamine-4-yl)-5,5′-di(3,5-(9,9′-dicarbazolyl)phenyl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2,2′,6,6′-tetracarbonitrile (DTPAmCPIPN), and 3,3′,5,5′-tetra(3,5-(9,9′-dicarbazolyl)phenyl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2,2′,6,6′-tetracarbonitrile (DDmCPIPN) are designed and synthesized by coupling their respective single core emitters. Compared with their single core counterparts, the three novel compounds exhibit significantly improved thermal stability, absorption coefficients, and photoluminescence efficiencies in neat films. Photophysical measurements show that these three emitters exhibit both aggregation-induced emission and thermally activated delayed fluorescence properties, which is beneficial for non-doped organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). The new compounds show relatively balanced charge carrier transport abilities as revealed by unipolar devices. The solution- and evaporation-processed doped and non-doped OLEDs made from these three luminophores achieve excellent electroluminescence (EL) performances. The peak current, power, and external quantum efficiencies of a DTPAmCPIPN-based solution-processed doped device reach 59.2 cd A −1 , 61.3 lm W −1 , and 17.2%, respectively, with an emission peak at 548 nm. The evaporation-processed doped device based on DTPAmCPIPN exhibits maximum EL efficiencies of up to 63.7 cd A −1 , 61.1 lm W −1 , and 19.2%. Moreover, the non-doped OLEDs also possess superior EL efficiencies with extremely small efficiency roll-offs. The molecular design strategy in this work is demonstrated to be effective in developing new emitters for efficient and stable OLEDs.

Fabrication of Heavy Metal Ion FET Based Sensor for Detecting Arsenite

Arsenic is one of the toxic chemical among heavy metals. It is mostly present in ground waters at higher levels. The long term exposure of food or water to arsenic leads to cancer and heart diseases. Arsenic occurs in two oxidation states, Arsenite (As2O3, As (III)) a trivalent form and Arsenate (As2O5, As (V)) a pentavalent form. As (III) is an inorganic form which is more toxic than As (V). The detection of arsenic ion in drinking water or in any liquid form of food can be done with several laboratory equipments such as ICP-MS. The detection limit of ICP-MS for Arsenic is 0.05μg/L (10^-10M). Though these laboratory methods can be used for detecting the arsenic ion but it is very complex, costly and time consuming. In this research, we developed a methodology for detecting Arsenite ion (As2O3, As (III)). FET based ion sensor is fabricated where the gate pulse is characterized with 1500 μs pulse width and amplitude of 1 V is connected to one electrode. A steady DC bias of 2 V is applied as the drainsource voltage. The Ion Selective Membrane(ISM) is used which is immobilized on the sensing areas. This ISM contains Ionophore, Potassium tetra phenyl borate, Poly vinyl chloride, 2-Nitrophenyl octyl ether and this ISM components mixture is dissolved in Tetrahydrofuran. Sodium Arsenite (NaAsO2) is the inorganic compound which is used for detection of As (III). This solution is dropped on the sensing area which covers both ISM and gate. When Vd is supplied, we temporarily apply Vg of 0V and 1V which causes a change in current level, we define it as gain and is used as our measurement signal. The concentration range from 10^-10 M to 10^-4 M of arsenite ion can be detected. This sensor is easy to fabricate, smaller in size, high sensitivity and takes less time for detecting Arsenite. This FET based ion sensor has same detection limit comparable to ICP-MS and this sensor shows higher sensitivity than the Nernstian slope. The sensing characteristics are not affected by the interfering ions. Figure 1

A self-healing supramolecular hydrogel with temperature-responsive fluorescence based on an AIE luminogen.

In this work, an AIE luminogen-based hydrogel with temperature-responsive fluorescence was designed and synthesized. The polymeric hydrogel consisted of a supramolecular network through coordination and ionic interactions. When the temperature was decreased, due to the motion restriction of the polyacrylic acid macromolecular segments and the enhancement in ionic interaction, the hydrogel exhibited a blue-shift in the fluorescence emission peak and increase in the fluorescence intensity, resulting in the visualization of fluorescence changes. The hydrogel network benefitted from non-covalent crosslinking and thus possessed self-healing properties at room temperature with good toughness and resiliency. Therefore, this fluorescent supramolecular hydrogel might be used as a temperature-responsive material.

Photodegradation of microcystin-LR by pyridyl iron porphyrin immobilized on NaY zeolite.

A novel photocatalyst, FeTPyPY, was prepared by immobilizing water-soluble tetra(4-pyridyl)phenyl iron-porphyrin (FeTPyP) on NaY zeolite to degrade microcystin-LR (MC-LR), one of the most toxic microcystins (MCs). UV-Vis analysis, UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry and transmission electron microscopy were employed to characterize immobilized FeTPyPY. Under visible light (λ ≥ 420 nm), MC-LR was degraded utilizing immobilized FeTPyPY by activating molecular oxygen. The results showed that 85% of MC-LR was efficiently degraded by FeTPyPY with loading amount 100:1 (mNaY:mFeTPyP) after 300 min of visible light illumination. Moreover, FeTPyPY was stable in the degradation system with pH 7.0. The degradation mechanism was evaluated using electron spin resonance, and the results demonstrated that highly reactive oxygen species (•OH radical) were generated in the system to degrade MC-LR. Therefore, immobilized FeTPyPY was available to break down the toxic groups within MC-LR by utilizing environmental •OH radical under circumneutral condition.

Diamondoid Frameworks via Supramolecular Coordination: Structural Characterization, Metallogel Formation, and Adsorption Study.

Supramolecular coordination has been developed as an efficient tool to construct a variety of discrete metallacycles and metallacages with well-defined shapes and sizes. However, its application in framework construction has been barely exploited. In this paper, we report the direct synthesis of two diamondoid frameworks from a simple tetrahedral precursor, tetra(4-(4-pyridinyl)phenyl)methane, and two linear difunctional platinum(II) ligands via one-step supramolecular coordination. Controlled by the specific angularity and geometry of the tetrahedral and linear subunits, these frameworks possess a well-defined diamondoid topology with highly regulated periodicity and three-dimensional porosity. Moreover, these rigid frameworks can be directly changed into a metallogel when prepared in DMSO at high concentrations. Interestingly, these diamondoid frameworks exhibit a cationic nature and stimuli-responsive behavior, which potentially endow them with the selective adsorption and controlled release for anionic dyes and drugs in aqueous environments. Thus, this study demonstrates that supramolecular coordination is a facile and efficient approach for the preparation of functional framework materials containing predesigned and well-defined supramolecular coordination assemblies as molecular skeletons.

Parameters dependent synthesis of zinc stannate nanowires using CVD and its porphyrin dye loaded optical studies

Polycrystalline zinc stannate (Zn2SnO4) nanowires have been studied for its synthesis optimization using novel carbothermal catalytic method, wherein binary oxide precursors were used under inert atmosphere at variable CVD synthesis parameters. X-ray diffraction, FESEM, EDS, HRTEM, Raman and CL measurements are used to understand the typical behaviour of ternary metal oxide nanowires i.e. Zn2SnO4 growth. The optimization of Zn2SnO4 nanowires has been discussed via synthesis parameters followed with reaction equations corresponding to its optical and room temperature electrical properties. Further, its visible range sensitization has been demonstrated for suitable sample using zinc tetra phenyl porphyrin (ZnTPP) dye via dye adsorption method. Corresponding optical and IPCE studies of photo-electrodes shows broadened visible range absorption in 300–600 nm range and conversion efficiency of 28% (at ∼447 nm) for the nanowires having indirect band gap of ∼3.4 eV. This study opens up the potential application in photovoltaic, sensors and photo catalytic devices.

Dosimetric characterization of novel polycarbonate/porphyrin film dosimeters for high dose dosimetry: study on complexation effect

Abstract Two novel radiochromic films with 20 μm thickness were made from casting of solutions of polycarbonate (PC) containing 0.5 wt.% tetra phenyl porphyrin (TPPH2) and 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl-21H,23H-porphine iron(III) chloride (Fe-TPP). Dosimetric characterization of the films as routine dosimeters were studied by spectrophotometric method. On subjecting TPPH2/PC and Fe-TPP/PC film dosimeters to gamma radiation, radiolytic bleaching of films was observed. The effects of metal-complexation on the radiation response of the film dosimeters were studied under 60Co γ-rays exposure in dose range of 0–100 kGy. The results were also compared with the PC/TPPF20 (PC/tetrakis (pentafluorophenyl) porphyrin) dosimeter to evaluate the substituent effect (role of fluorine groups). Experimental parameters including humidity, temperature and pre-irradiation (shelf-life) and post-irradiation storage in dark and in indirect sunlight were examined. The maximum absorbance of Soret band of dyes had meaningful shifts and reduction which arose from complexation and substituents. The dyed films characteristics were found to be stable enough in media with high degrees of temperature and humidity. The results indicate that the radiation-induced decoloration of TPPH2/PC and Fe-TPP/PC films can be reliably tuned and used in high dose dosimetry.

POTENTIOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF GLYCOPYRRONIUM BROMIDE IN BINARY MIXTURE WITH INDACATEROL MALEATE USING POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) MEMBRANE, COATED GRAPHITE AND CARBON PASTE SENSORS

A novel approach was conducted in this article for the determination of glycopyrronium bromide (GLY) in binary mixture with indacaterol maleate using ion selective electrodes for its selective determination in pure form and pharmaceutical formulation. Four ion selective electrode sensors were designed for determination of glycopyrronium bromide namely; glycopyrronium bromide-polyvinyl chloride (GLY-PVC) membrane, GLY-Coated graphite sensor and GLY-modified carbon paste sensors. The sensors are based on the ion association complexes of GLY cation with sodium tetra phenyl borate (GLY-TPB) and phosphomolybidic acid (GLY-PMA) counter anions as ion exchange sites using dioctylphthalate (DOP) as plasticizer. Validation of the method shows suitability of the proposed sensors for use in the quality control assessment of GLY and for its routine analysis. The results obtained were statistically compared to reported method and there was no significant difference between the proposed methods and the reported method regarding the accuracy and precision. The method was validated according to International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines and the results were satisfactory.

Microfabricated disposable nanosensor based on CdSe quantum dot/ionic liquid-mediated hollow fiber-pencil graphite electrode for simultaneous electrochemical quantification of uric acid and creatinine in human samples

In this research, a novel sensitive electrochemical nanosensor based on the cadmium selenide quantum dots (QDs)/ionic liquid mediated hollow fiber-pencil graphite electrode (HF-PGE) was prepared and applied for simultaneous determination of uric acid (UA) and creatinine (Crn) in urine and serum samples. The electrocatalytic oxidation of the analytes was investigated via differential pulse (DPV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The experiments were designed, in two different steps, according to Taguchi's method; OA9 L9 (33) and OA9 L9 (34) orthogonal array to optimize experimental runs. The results revealed that the electrode response was initially influenced by the types of sensor and types of ionic liquids and their ratios. The amount of QD, buffer pH, equilibration time and scan rate also influenced electrode response efficiency. According to the results of Taguchi analysis, the amount of tetra phenyl phosphonium chloride (TPPC) and QD were the most influencing parameters on the yield response of the modified electrodes. Linear ranges were obtained between 0.297–2.970 × 103 and 0.442–8.840 × 103 μM, with the detection limits of 0.083 and 0.229 μM and relative standard deviations (RSD) of 2.4% and 1.8%, for UA and Crn, respectively. Finally, the proposed method was successfully examined for simultaneous determination of UA and Crn in human urine and serum samples.

Construction of a new Ho3+ PVC-membrane electrochemical sensor based on N,N′-dipyridoxyl(1,4-butanediamine)

N,N′-dipyridoxyl(1, 4-butanediamine) (PYBA) (2 wt % ), nitrobenzene (66 wt %), sodium tetra phenyl borate (2 wt ), and poly vinyl chloride (30 wt %) were applied to create a PVC membrane in Ho3+ selective electrode (Ho-SE). Over the concentration range of 1.0 × 10‒5 to 1.0 × 10‒2 M in holmium(III) solution a linear response with lower detection of limit equal 4.0 × 10‒6 M was exhibited by new holmium(III) sensor. Ho-SE possessed a Nernstian slope of 20.1 ± 0.8 mV decade‒1 in very short time spans (~9 s). The potential response of electrode remains without any changes over a pH range of 2.77–8.71. The selectivity coefficient data which was considered by matched potential method for variety of common cations indicated no significant interference. An acceptable recovery for Ho3+ in the blend of several cations has been achieved. The utility of Ho-SE in potentiometric titration as an end point indicator electrode gave successfully results.

Efficient photocatalytic oxygenation of alkenes by water soluble sensitizer in organic–water biphasic media

A new green, environmentally and economically photooxygenation of olefins by molecular oxygen in the presence of 4-carboxyl tetra phenyl porphyrin (H2TCPP), Rose Bengal (RB), Methylene Blue (MB) and some metallosensitizers (MS) such as cobalt phthalocyaninesulfonate (Coph(SO3H)[Formula: see text], MnTCPPCl, FeTCPPCl and SbTPP(OH)2 as water–soluble sensitizers in organic–water biphasic media at room temperature under visible light was illustrated. The products were obtained with 100% conversion by H2TCPP and 100% selectivity by Coph(SO3H)4. Also in this study, singlet oxygen production as the major route for oxidation of olefins was proved.

Nanoscale Control of Morphology in Fullerene-Based Electron-Conducting Buffers via Organic Vapor Phase Deposition

Small molecular weight organic thin film mixtures of the electron-conducting C60 in a wide energy gap matrix, 3,5,3',5'-tetra(m-pyrid-3-yl)phenyl[1,1']biphenyl (BP4mPy) forms a high efficiency electron filtering buffer in organic photovoltaics (OPV). Electrons are conducted via percolating paths of C60 whereas excitons are blocked by the BP4mPy. We find that the conductivity and exciton blocking efficiency of the blends are strongly dependent on film morphology that can be precisely controlled by the conditions used in the organic vapor phase deposition (OVPD). Specifically, we find that a background carrier gas pressure of 0.28 Torr leads to extended and highly conductive crystalline C60 domains. Furthermore, the structure is strongly influenced by carrier gas pressure. Via a combination of morphological measurements and molecular dynamics simulations, we find that this dependence is due to kinetically induced structural annealing at the growth interface. The highest electron mobility of (6.1 ± 0.5) × 10(-3) (cm(2)/V·s) is obtained at 0.28 Torr, which is approximately 2 orders of magnitude higher than for amorphous C60 films. The fill factors and power conversion efficiencies of vacuum deposited tetraphenyldibenzoperiflanthene (DBP):C70 planar mixed heterojunction OPVs using an OVPD-grown buffer layer are (8.0 ± 0.2)% compared to (6.6 ± 0.2)% using amorphous buffers grown by vacuum thermal evaporation.

Reduced Graphene Oxide Non‐covalent Functionalized with Zinc Tetra Phenyl Porphyrin Nanocomposite for Electrochemical Detection of Dopamine in Human Serum and Rat Brain Samples

AbstractWe described the use of a nanocomposite consisting of reduced graphene oxide and zinc tetraphenylporphyrin (RGO/Zn‐TPP) for electrochemical sensing of dopamine (DA). The surface of RGO was homogeneously functionalized with Zn‐TPP via non‐covalent π‐π interaction. The nanocomposite was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, UV‐Vis spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The electroanalysis behavior of the nanocomposite was studied by cyclic voltammetry and amperometry. The excellent electrocatalytic activity is found for oxidation of DA, best at working voltage of 0.214 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) and linear response range of 0.04–238.8 μM. The sensitivity and detection limit were of 0.665 μA µM−1 cm−2and 3 nM, respectrively. The electrode is well reproducible, stable, and represents a viable platform for the analysis of DA in DA injection, human serum and rat brain sample.

Immobilization of palladium on functionalized nanoporous MCM-41 and its application in C–C bond-forming and synthesis of DHQs

A new palladium complex supported on mesoporous silica was successfully prepared by anchoring of 2-amino-3-hydroxy pyridine (2A3HP) on the wall of functionalized MCM-41, then reacted with Pd(OAc)2. This mesporous compound (Pd-2A3HP-MCM-41) was characterized by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Pd-2A3HP-MCM-41 was evaluated as an efficient catalyst for the C–C coupling reaction of aryl halides with sodium tetra phenyl borate and synthesis of 2,3-dihydroquinazolin-4(1H)-ones. The catalyst was successfully reused several times without appreciable change in its catalytic activity.

Efficient red, green, blue and white organic light-emitting diodes with same exciplex host

Recently, exciplex had drawn attention because of its potential for efficient electroluminescence or for use as a host in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). In this study, four kinds of hole transport material/electron transport material combinations were examined to verify the formation of exciplex and the corresponding energy bandgaps. We successfully demonstrated that the combination of tris(4-carbazoyl-9-ylphenyl)amine (TCTA) and 3,5,3′,5′-tetra(m-pyrid-3-yl)phenyl[1,1′]biphenyl (BP4mPy) could form a stable exciplex emission with an adequate energy gap. Using exciplex as a host in red, green, and blue phosphorescent OLEDs with an identical trilayer architecture enabled effective energy transfer from exciplex to emitters, achieving corresponding efficiencies of 8.8, 14.1, and 15.8%. A maximum efficiency of 11.3% and stable emission was obtained in white OLEDs.

Disponibilidade de potássio a arroz irrigado por alagamento em solos de várzea

RESUMO O método usualmente empregado para avaliação da disponibilidade de potássio (K) no solo (Mehlich-1) não estima as formas não trocáveis do elemento. No entanto, essas formas podem contribuir de maneira significativa no suprimento às plantas de arroz irrigado por alagamento. Objetivou-se avaliar formas de K em solos de várzea por diferentes métodos e associá-las às quantidades de K absorvidas por plantas de arroz irrigado por alagamento. O experimento foi conduzido em casade-vegetação, com amostras de 14 solos de várzea cultivados com arroz (cultivar IRGA 417) e irrigados por alagamento. Nas amostras de solo, o K foi extraído com cloreto de cálcio, Mehlich-1, tetrafenil borato de sódio (NaTFB) e ácido fluorídrico, antes e após o cultivo. Na parte aérea das plantas, foi determinada a quantidade de K absorvido. Houve ampla variação na quantidade de K total para os solos de várzea. A variação na quantidade de K extraído pelo método Mehlich-1 não explica a quantidade de K absorvida pelas plantas de arroz irrigado para todos os solos. O método NaTFB foi mais sensível em estimar o K disponível em solos de várzea cultivados com arroz irrigado por alagamento.

Production, quality control, biodistribution assessment and preliminary dose evaluation of [177Lu]-tetra phenyl porphyrin complex as a possible therapeutic agent

<p>Due to interesting therapeutic properties of <sup>177</sup>Lu and tumor avidity of tetraphenyl porphyrins (TPPs), <sup>177</sup>Lu-tetraphenyl porphyrin was developed as a possible therapeutic compound. <sup>177</sup>Lu of 2.6-3 GBq/mg specific activity was obtained by irradiation of natural Lu<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>sample with thermal neutron flux of 4 × 10<sup>13</sup> n.cm<sup>-2</sup>.s<sup>-1</sup>. Tetraphenyl porphyrin was synthetized and labeled with <sup>177</sup>Lu. Radiochemical purity of the complex was studied using Instant thin layer chromatography (ITLC) method. Stability of the complex was checked in final formulation and human serum for 48 h. The biodistribution of the labeled compound in vital organs of wild-type rats was studied up to 7 d. The absorbed dose of each human organ was calculated by medical internal radiation dose (MIRD) method. A detailed comparative pharmacokinetic study was performed for <sup>177</sup>Lu cation and [<sup>177</sup>Lu]-TPP. The complex was prepared with a radiochemical purity: >97±1% and specific activity: 970-1000 MBq/mmol. Biodistribution data and dosimetric results showed that all tissues receive approximately an insignificant absorbed dose due to rapid excretion of the complex through the urinary tract. [<sup>177</sup>Lu]-TPP can be an interesting tumor targeting agent due to low liver uptake and very low absorbed dose of approximately 0.036 to the total body of human.</p>