Long-term Memory Test Research Articles

Markers of a plant-based diet relate to memory and executive function in older adults

ABSTRACT Background Although it is known that plant-based foods are important for physical health, little is known about the relationship between plant-based foods and cognitive health. Emerging evidence suggests that some macronutrients may influence cognition, but it is unclear which domains of cognition are involved; more importantly, it is unknown how a plant-based diet relates to cognition. Objective To examine associations between a plant-based dietary pattern and cognitive functioning. Methods Participants were 3,039 older adults who participated in the 2011-2014 waves of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). The present cross-sectional study used data on macronutrient intake from 24-hour dietary interviews, as well as performance on tests of long-term memory and executive function (i.e., delayed word recall, digit symbol substitution test, and animal fluency). Principal component analysis was used to extract a dietary pattern consistent with a plant-based diet. Results Greater adherence to a dietary pattern consistent with a plant-based diet was related to better performance on all cognitive tasks. Secondary analyses indicated that the associations between a plant-based dietary pattern and executive function accounted for the association between a plant-based dietary pattern and memory. Furthermore, this same plant-based dietary pattern was associated with reduced baseline inflammation in a separate dataset. Conclusions Experimental manipulations are needed to determine the potential causal relations of these associations, but these results suggest that a plant-based diet relates to better cognition, especially through improved executive control. Future work should also attempt to extend these results by examining potential mechanisms underlying these associations, such as reduced inflammation.

A potential role of Zfra in mitigating traumatic brain injury transition to Alzheimer’s disease‐like symptom in mice

Most recently, tumor suppressor WWOX is defined as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease(AD). Previously, we determined that accumulation of pS14‐WWOX in the brain hippocampus and cortex correlates with the occurrence of AD and probably other neurodegeneration. Zinc finger‐like protein that regulates apoptosis (Zfra) suppresses pS14‐WWOX accumulation and restores memory loss in triple transgenic mice (3xTg) for AD. During the acute phase traumatic brain injury (TBI), overly expressed WWOX becomes phosphorylated at Tyr33 and is accumulated in the nuclei to cause neuronal death in the impacted areas. We determined that in the novel object recognition tests, mice surviving from TBI (2.8 to 3.3 Newtonian force) significantly spent less exploring time on new objects in both long‐term and short‐term memory tests post TBI for 18 weeks, indicating the occurrence of damage in long‐ and short‐term memory. Further, control and TBI mice were subjected to Morris water maze tests post TBI for 10 weeks to determine the hippocampus‐dependent, spatial memory. Both groups showed a time‐dependent decrease in escape latency, indicating that mild TBI didn’t affect the learning capabilities. BALB/c mice received Zfra4‐10 peptide via tail vein injections prior to TBI (1.7 Newtonian force). Two weeks later, these treated mice significantly spent more time on probing the new object in the short‐term memory task compared to control mice, suggesting that Zfra peptide prevents TBI‐induced memory loss. Interestingly, by immunohistochemistry, significant upregulation of tau phosphorylation at T181 and amyloid beta aggregates was shown rapidly in death‐inducing impact in BALB/c mice (3.5 Newton), and that Zfra significantly prevented the upregulation (~20 to 33%). Together, our observations suggest the transition of TBI to AD‐like symptom in mice are likely to occur, and that Zfra4‐10 peptide prevents the transition.Support or Funding InformationMinistry of Science & Technology, Taiwan, National Health Research Institute, Taiwan, Department of Defense, USA

Dietary Spray-Dried Porcine Plasma Prevents Cognitive Decline in Senescent Mice and Reduces Neuroinflammation and Oxidative Stress

Aging is characterized by chronic, low-grade inflammation that correlates with cognitive decline. Dietary supplementation with spray-dried porcine plasma (SDP) reduces immune activation in rodent models of inflammation and aging. We investigated whether the anti-inflammatory properties of SDP could ameliorate age-related cognitive deterioration and preserve brain homeostasis in an aging mouse model of senescence. Male senescence-accelerated prone 8 (SAMP8) mice were used. In Experiment 1, cognitive performance (n=10-14 mice/group) was analyzed by the novel object recognition test in 2-mo-old mice (2M group) and in mice fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with 8% SDP for 2 (4M-CTL and 4M-SDP groups) and 4 mo (6M-CTL and 6M-SDP groups). In Experiment 2, the permeability of the blood-brain barrier and junctional proteins in brain tissue was assessed, as well as synaptic density, oxidative stress markers, and inflammatory genes and proteins in mice from the 2M, 6M-CTL, and 6M-SDP groups ( n=5-11). Statistical analyses included one-factor ANOVA followed by Fisher's posthoc test. 6M-SDP mice had better cognitive performance than 6M-CTL mice in both short-term (P=0.024) and long-term (P=0.017) memory tests. In brain tissue, 6M-SDP mice showed reduced brain capillary permeability (P=0.034) and increased ZO1 and E-cadherin expression (both P<0.04) compared with 6M-CTL mice. SDP also prevented the NFκB activation observed in 6M-CTL mice (P=0.002) and reduced Il6 expression and hydrogen peroxide concentration (both P<0.03) observed in 6M-CTL mice. SDP also increased the concentration of IL10 (P=0.027), an anti-inflammatory cytokine correlated with memory preservation. In senescent SAMP8 mice, dietary supplementation with SDP attenuated cognitive decline and prevented changes in brain markers of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.

Paternal morphine self-administration produces object recognition memory deficits in female, but not male offspring.

Parental drug use around or before conception can have adverse consequences for offspring. Historically, this research has focused on the effects of maternal substance use on future generations but less is known about the influence of the paternal lineage. This study focused on the impact of chronic paternal morphine exposure prior to conception on behavioral outcomes in male and female progeny. This study sought to investigate the impact of paternal morphine self-administration on anxiety-like behavior, the stress response, and memory in male and female offspring. Adult, drug-naïve male and female progeny of morphine-treated sires and controls were evaluated for anxiety-like behavior using defensive probe burying and novelty-induced hypophagia paradigms. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function was assessed by measuring plasma corticosterone levels following a restraint stressor in male and female progeny. Memory was probed using a battery of tests including object location memory, novel object recognition, and contextual fear conditioning. Paternal morphine exposure did not alter anxiety-like behavior or stress-induced HPA axis activation in male or female offspring. Morphine-sired male and female offspring showed intact hippocampus-dependent memory: they performed normally on the long-term fear conditioning and object location memory tests. In contrast, paternal morphine exposure selectively disrupted novel object recognition in female, but not male, progeny. Our findings demonstrate that paternal morphine taking produces sex-specific and selective impairments in object recognition memory while leaving hippocampal function largely intact.

Honeybees fail to discriminate floral scents in a complex learning task after consuming a neonicotinoid pesticide.

ABSTRACTNeonicotinoids are pesticides used to protect crops but with known secondary influences at sublethal doses on bees. Honeybees use their sense of smell to identify the queen and nestmates, to signal danger and to distinguish flowers during foraging. Few behavioural studies to date have examined how neonicotinoid pesticides affect the ability of bees to distinguish odours. Here, we used a differential learning task to test how neonicotinoid exposure affects learning, memory and olfactory perception in foraging-age honeybees. Bees fed with thiamethoxam could not perform differential learning and could not distinguish odours during short- and long-term memory tests. Our data indicate that thiamethoxam directly impacts the cognitive processes involved in working memory required during differential olfactory learning. Using a combination of behavioural assays, we also identified that thiamethoxam has a direct impact on the olfactory perception of similar odours. Honeybees fed with other neonicotinoids (clothianidin, imidacloprid, dinotefuran) performed the differential learning task, but at a slower rate than the control. These bees could also distinguish the odours. Our data are the first to show that neonicotinoids have compound specific effects on the ability of bees to perform a complex olfactory learning task. Deficits in decision making caused by thiamethoxam exposure could mean that this is more harmful than other neonicotinoids, leading to inefficient foraging and a reduced ability to identify nestmates.

Event Segmentation Reveals Working Memory Forgetting Rate

It is evident that past experiences are remembered as episodes although the world is encountered as a continuous flow of events. Working memory plays a key role in tracking and segmenting the flow of events during encoding. Despite that generally event segment is triggered by perception of a salient event, empirical data shows that the number of identified segments is variable across a tested population. It is yet unclear which aspect of working memory – capacity or forgetting rate - is related to individual variability in segmentation. Here, we used computational modeling to estimate the working memory capacity and forgetting rate of healthy adults performing an association learning task, and we determined a relationship between working memory and event segmentation that was determined of three movies with different storylines. The results revealed a U-shaped relationship between forgetting rate and event segmentation, so that the individuals who reported either a very low (coarse- segmenters) or a very high (fine-segmenters) number of events had a faster forgetting rate. The results from the long-term memory tests suggested that two different strategies were used by the fine- and coarse-segemneters. The coarse-segmenters had better recognition of temporal order of events and benefited from the storyline of the movie, specifically for temporally distant events, in contrast to the fine-segmenters, who performed better at free recall. Accordingly, the variability in event segmentation was related to the variability in utilizing working memory and long-term memory systems.

Reconsolidation or interference? Aging effects and the reactivation of novel and familiar episodic memories

ABSTRACT We examined aging effects in reconsolidation and interference in episodic memory by reactivating memories for well-learned items in young and healthy older adults while controlling memory strength and the degree semantic processes contributed to memory. In Experiment 1, young and old adults learned pairs of real words and images to a strict criterion. After 24-hours, half of the images were reactivated and new words were paired with the images and learned to criterion. Following a 1-week delay, recognition and source monitoring were measured for both sets of pairings. Experiment 2 was a replication of Experiment 1, but using previously unknown novel words and unusual images. As predicted, older adults needed more trials to learn both the A-B and A-C pairings. Older adults required more trials to learn the new associations for reactivated than the not reactivated pairs, although there was no main effect of reactivation and no Age x Reactivation interaction for measures of recognition one-week later. These results are inconsistent with previous findings concerning age differences in reactivation effects in episodic memory. Instead, they suggest that once memory strength and input from semantic memory are better controlled, young and old adults perform similarly on tests of long-term recognition memory.

The effects of aversive-to-appetitive counterconditioning on implicit and explicit fear memory.

Counterconditioning (CC) is a form of retroactive interference that inhibits expression of learned behavior. But similar to extinction, CC can be a fairly weak and impermanent form of interference, and the original behavior is prone to relapse. Research on CC is limited, especially in humans, but prior studies suggest it is more effective than extinction at modifying some behaviors (e.g., preference or valence ratings) than others (e.g., physiological arousal). Here, we used a within-subjects design to compare the effects of aversive-to-appetitive CC versus standard extinction on two separate tests of long-term memory in human adults: implicit physiological arousal and explicit episodic memory. Participants underwent Pavlovian fear conditioning to two semantic categories (animals, tools) paired with an electric shock. Conditioned stimuli (i.e., category exemplars) from one category were then extinguished, while stimuli from the other category were paired with a positive outcome. Participants returned 24-h later for a test of skin conductance responses (SCR) to the conditioned exemplars, as well as a surprise recognition memory test for stimuli encoded the previous day. Results showed reduced SCRs at a test for unique stimuli from a category that had undergone CC, relative to stimuli from a category that had undergone standard extinction. Additionally, participants selectively remembered more stimuli encoded during CC than extinction. These results provide new evidence that aversive-to-appetitive CC, as compared to extinction, strengthens memory for items directly associated with a positive outcome, which may provide stronger retrieval competition against a fear memory at test to help diminish fear relapse.

Prefrontal working memory activity predicts episodic memory performance: A neuroimaging study

Working memory (WM) and long term memory (LTM) are different neuropsychological processes, although distinction between these domains is an area of debate. LTM is thought to rely on hippocampal circuitry. Cognitive neuroscience models imply that WM processing may at least partially support LTM within regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We sought to determine the association between PFC based WM processing and LTM in the visuospatial domain. In contrast to prior work, we aimed to query if WM was involved in learning and free recall trials as measured by standard neuropsychological tests of LTM. Forty-three older adults (24 with a diagnosis of amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment and 19 elderly controls) were included in the analysis. Patients completed a fMRI task of visuospatial maintenance WM in which they were required to match a previously studied complex shape with one of two probes. Extent of activity in the right PFC during the WM task was tabulated for each patient. Hippocampal volume was quantified from T1 scans. On a separate day patients completed neuropsychological testing, including the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test- Revised (BVMT-R), which includes learning trials (total recall), delayed free recall, and recognition. Right PFC activity was associated with performance on BVMT-R total recall and delayed recall. Results from multiple regression showed that PFC activity explained an additional 9 % of the variance in memory performance above right hippocampal volume. These findings suggest that PFC processing that supports WM (including stimuli maintenance, retrieval, and selection) are also involved in LTM learning and recall.

Social support favors extinction and impairs acquisition of both short- and long-term contextual fear conditioning memory

Fear memory has an essential role on animal’s survival once it induces defensive behavior in response to threats. Among other factors, social support is known to down-regulate the expression of fear conditioned response, representing an important modulator of fear memories. Here we studied the effects of social support during acquisition, retrieval and extinction of contextual fear conditioning (CFC) memory in rats, by exposing the animals to the CFC task either in the absence or in the presence of a conspecific during the training, extinction and/or test sessions. The presence of a conspecific during the training session of CFC resulted in impairment to memory retention as verified in the short- and long-term memory test, suggesting that social support exerts a suppressive effect on the acquisition of CFC. On retrieval, social support decreased the expression of the conditioned fear response - as also seen in the extinction session. Nevertheless, the animals were able to learn the extinction memory as verified in the retention test. Therefore, this study demonstrates the effects of social support at crucial moments in CFC: impairing memory acquisition and favoring its extinction, by reducing the expression of the conditioned fear response with no impairment to the extinction learning.

Raloxifene recovers effects of prenatal immune activation on cognitive task-induced gamma power

There is currently no treatment available for the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, but evidence suggests that selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) may provide relief. Our recent animal model data showed that a lack of female sex hormones in mice impairs the ability of hippocampal neurons to synchronise and generate oscillations within the frequency range of 30–80 Hz (gamma power) leading to cognitive impairment, while both estradiol and the SERM, raloxifene, recovered this. Given that cognitive impairment is accompanied by abnormal gamma power in schizophrenia, this study aimed to determine the effects of raloxifene on gamma power during spatial memory tasks in the prenatal immune challenged (poly-I:C) mouse model with relevance to schizophrenia.Pregnant dams received the viral mimetic poly-I:C (20 mg/kg, i.p.) at gestational day 17. Male and female offspring were treated with placebo or raloxifene implants at adulthood. Local field potentials from the CA1 hippocampus were simultaneously recorded during the Y-maze test of short term spatial memory and the cheeseboard maze test of long-term spatial learning and memory and cognitive flexibility.In female but not male mice, poly I:C exposure reduced gamma power during decision making and prolonged the time spent in the centre (decision making phase) during the Y-maze task. Female poly-I:C exposed mice also showed increased gamma power during acquisition of the cheeseboard long term memory task and perseverative behaviour. Treatment with raloxifene recovered gamma power and decision making deficits in the Y-maze and restored gamma power changes during the cheeseboard maze task as well as perseverative behaviour. Male mice showed no electrophysiological or behavioural effects of poly-I:C or raloxifene treatment.In summary, poly-I:C exposure induced female specific cognitive impairments accompanied by altered neural oscillations in the gamma frequency and raloxifene recovered these abnormalities.

NMDA receptor and nitric oxide synthase activity in the central amygdala is involved in the acquisition and consolidation of conditioned odor aversion

Rats readily learn to avoid a tasteless odorized solution if they experience visceral malaise after consuming it. This phenomenon is referred to as conditioned odor aversion (COA). Several studies have shown that COA depends on the functional integrity of the amygdala, with most studies focusing on the basolateral nucleus. On the other hand, the role of the central amygdala (CeA) which is known to be involved in the consolidation of conditioned taste aversion (CTA) remains to be established. To address this issue, we evaluated the effect of inhibiting NMDA receptor activity in this structure on COA memory formation. Intra-CeA infusions of non-competitive NMDA receptor inhibitor MK-801 prevented memory formation both when administered before and up to 15 min after COA conditioning, while no effect of this drug was observed when given before long-term memory test. We next evaluated the role of one of the main downstream effectors of brain NMDA receptor signaling, nitric oxide synthase (NOS), known to play a key role in a wide variety learning tasks including some types of olfactory conditioning. Similar results were obtained with inhibition of either NOS or neuron-specific NOS; which proved to be required both during and after COA training, though for a shorter time span than NMDA receptors. Also, neither isoform showed to be required to memory retrieval. These results suggest that the US signaling during acquisition and the initial consolidation step of COA depends on glutamate-NO system activation in the CeA.

Catechol-o-methyltransferase inhibitor tolcapone improves learning and memory in naïve but not in haloperidol challenged rats.

Objective(s):Dopamine plays an important role in cognitive functions. Inhibition of the dopamine-degrading enzyme catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) may have beneficial effects. Our aim was to assess the effect of COMT inhibitor tolcapone (TCP) on learning and memory in naïve and haloperidol-challenged rats.Materials and Methods:Male Wistar rats were divided into 9 groups (n=8): naïve-saline, tolcapone 5; 15 and 30 mg/kg BW; haloperidol (HP) challenged-saline, haloperidol, haloperidol+tolcapone 5; 15 and 30 mg/kg BW. Two-way active avoidance test (TWAA), elevated T-maze, and activity cage were performed. Observed parameters were: number of conditioned responses (CR) and unconditioned responses (UCR), working memory index, and vertical and horizontal movements. Results:Naïve rats with 30 mg/kg BW TCP had a significantly increased number of CR and UCR during the long-term memory test. The animals with 5 mg/kg BW TCP significantly increased the number of UCR during the two retention tests. In haloperidol-challenged rats, the three experimental groups decreased the number of CR and UCR during the learning session and the two memory tests, compared to the saline group. There was no significant difference between the HP-challenged rats treated with TCP and the haloperidol control group. All experimental naïve groups had significantly increased working memory index whereas none of the HP-challenged groups showed significant increase in this parameter. Conclusion:Our results demonstrate that in naïve rats tolcapone improves memory in the hippocampal-dependent TWAA task and spatial working memory in T-maze.

Effects of Pramipexole on Learning and Memory Processes in Naïve and Haloperidol-challenged Rats in Active Avoidance Test.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurode-generative disease, usually detected by its motor symptoms. The non-motor symptoms, including cognitive deficits, have been of great interest to researchers in the last few decades. To assess the effect of pramipexole on learning and memory in naïve and haloperidol-challenged rats. Male Wistar rats divided into 9 groups (n=8): naïve - saline, pramipexole 0.5; 1 and 3 mg/kg bw; Haloperidol groups - saline, haloperidol, haloperidol + pramipexole 0.5; 1 and 3 mg/kg bw. Two-way active avoidance test (TWAA) and activity cage were performed. The studied parameters were: number of conditioned and unconditioned responses, vertical and horizontal movements. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS 19. The naïve experimental groups significantly increased the number of conditioned responses during the tests for short- and long-term memory, compared with the saline groups (p<0.05). During the short-memory test only the animals with the lowest dose of PMX significantly increased the number of unconditioned responses whereas during the long-term memory test all experimental groups increased the number of escapes in comparison with the saline groups (p<0.05). Challenge dose of haloperidol attenuates learning and memory in pramipexol treated rats. Only the highest dose of pramipexol showed significant increase in conditioned and unconditioned responses compared with the haloperidol group (p<0.05). Pramipexole improves learning and memory in naïve rats by enhancing dopaminergic neurotransmission. This is probably not the only mechanism involved. This is confirmed by the decrease in learning and memory ability in rats with haloperidol-challenge.

The effect of working memory maintenance on long-term memory.

Initially inspired by the Atkinson and Shiffrin model, researchers have spent a half century investigating whether actively maintaining an item in working memory (WM) leads to improved subsequent long-term memory (LTM). Empirical results have been inconsistent, and thus the answer to the question remains unclear. We present evidence from 13 new experiments as well as a meta-analysis of 61 published experiments. Both the new experiments and meta-analysis show clear evidence that increased WM maintenance of a stimulus leads to superior recognition for that stimulus in subsequent LTM tests. This effect appears robust across a variety of experimental design parameters, suggesting that the variability in prior results in the literature is probably due to low power and random chance. The results support theories on which there is a close link between WM and LTM mechanisms, while challenging claims that this relationship is specific to verbal memory and evolved to support language acquisition.

KIBRA T allele influences memory performance and progression of cognitive decline: a 7-year follow-up study in subjective cognitive decline and mild cognitive impairment.

KIBRA is a signal transducer protein, mainly expressed in the kidney and brain. A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP rs17070145, T → C exchange) has been linked to different cognitive function. In 2008, we studied 70 subjects who complained of subjective cognitive decline (SCD) and found that CT/TT carriers performed worse than CC carriers on a long-term memory test. We followed up the 70 SCD subjects and also 31 subjects affected by mild cognitive impairment (MCI) for a mean follow-up time of 7years, during which 16 SCD subjects progressed to MCI and 14 MCI subjects progressed to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Carrying the T allele was associated with MCI and with a two times-higher risk of developing MCI than CC carriers. In the SCD sample, CT/TT carriers showed a greater worsening on Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test (RBMT) compared to CC carriers. In the MCI sample, CT/TT carriers performed worse than CC carriers on RBMT. There is a lack of consensus on the effect of KIBRA gene variants on cognitive performances in episodic memory and on the risk of AD. Our results confirm a role of T allele on progression of cognitive decline.

Comparison of the Effect of Major- Versus Minor-Keyed Music on Long-Term Declarative Memory in High School Students

This pilot study compared the effect of music played in major and minor keys on long-term declarative memory in high school students. Major and minor keys are pivotal theoretical distinctions in music known to trigger different emotional responses. While the influence of specific genres of music on memory have been studied, possible effects of the tonality of music have not been explored. It was hypothesized that music would improve LT-DM, and music played in the minor key would illicit a greater improvement than the major. A total of 21 volunteer high school students were equally randomized between two groups. Each group completed a control and an experimental long-term memory test. Tests comprised of a reading phase where students studied a standardized passage, and a multiple-choice question phase 7 days later, where their memory of the studied text was examined. The reading phase of the control test was conducted in a quiet environment. During the reading phase of the experimental test, a piece of piano music was played. The same music was played in the major key for one group and in the minor key for the other. Both groups demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in the experimental test compared to their own control (p = 0.0078, p = 0.0107). A trend towards better memory retention with the minor-keyed music was observed compared with the major key. The difference between the two groups of improvement with music, however, did not meet statistical significance (p = 0.31). A larger complementary study may provide more definitive information regarding comparative effects of major and minor musical keys on long-term memory.

Features of EEG Spectral Parameters in Depressive Patients with Different Efficiencies of Decision-making

We analyzed the relationships between the EEG spectral parameters in depressed patients reflecting the functional state of the brain, and the efficiency of their decision-making based on both logic and emotional learning in order to clarify the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying decision-making impairments. As a result of multivariate cluster analysis based on 96 EEG spectral power parameters, two subgroups of depressive patients were identified. The groups differ in the EEG amplitude-frequency and spatial characteristics, but do not differ either in age or in severity of depression. The subgroup of depressive patients who formed cluster 2 and had higher spectral powers of the EEG ∆ (2–4 Hz), θ1 (4–6 Hz), θ2 (6–8 Hz), α1 (8–9 Hz) and α2 (9–11 Hz) subbands, as compared with the patients who formed cluster 1, had a higher level of cognitive test performance that requires decision-making: the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), which evaluates logic-based decision-making, and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), which evaluates decision-making based on emotional learning. Cluster 2 patients also exhibited a better long-term memorization (in the ten-word long-term memory test) compared with those who formed cluster 1. Judging by the EEG parameters, the neurophysiological mechanisms of inhibition are more intact in patients forming cluster 2 than in cluster 1 patients who have lower spectral power values of the EEG ∆ (2–4 Hz), θ1 (4–6 Hz), θ2 (6–8 Hz), α1 (8–9 Hz), and α2 (9–11 Hz) subbands. The impairment of decision-making functions in depressive patients may, at least partially, be due to the deficit of the brain inhibition mechanisms that ensure normal integrative brain activity, including such higher mental functions as memory, attention, and decision-making.

Comparing Two Methods of Delivering ThinkRx Cognitive Training to Children Ages 8\u201314: a Randomized Controlled Trial of Equivalency

Cognitive training is growing in popularity as an intervention for children who struggle to learn. In the current study, we compared the equivalency of two delivery models of the same cognitive training program, ThinkRx, for children ages 8–14. In a randomized controlled trial assessing equivalence, we compared cognitive outcomes between a group who received 60 h of ThinkRx cognitive training delivered one-on-one by a cognitive trainer (n = 20) versus a group of children who received 30 h of ThinkRx delivered by a cognitive trainer and the other 30 h through digital training procedures (n = 18). Results showed no significant differences between groups on tests of working memory, logic and reasoning, auditory processing, visual processing, processing speed, or overall IQ score. Results were significantly different on the test of long-term memory. These results suggest that both delivery models are equivalent cognitive training interventions for children.

Mathematical problem-solving and metacognitive skills of 5th grade students as a function of gender and level of academic achievement

This study aimed to investigate differences in the mathematical problem-solving and metacognitive skills of the fifth-grade students in Oman as a function of gender and level of academic achievement. The participants were 90 grade five students randomly selected from one educational governorate in the Sultanate of Oman. They were evenly divided into three groups based on gender and levels of academic achievement. Four instruments were used in the study: a mathematical problemsolving test, a non-verbal metacognitive scale, Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices and a long-term memory test. The results for metacognitive and mathematical problem-solving skills indicate that students with a high level of academic achievement obtained the highest score while students enrolled in a learning disability program obtained the lowest score. In addition, possible interventions were identified that may improve the metacognitive skills of students enrolled in the learning disability program, which could lead to improvement in their mathematical problem-solving skills.&#x0D; Keywords: Problem-solving, metacognition, learning disability, academic achievement.&#x0D;