Terrorist Bomb Attacks Research Articles

Experimental study on the residual seismic performance of CFDST columns after contact explosion

Bridge columns are susceptible to various hazards throughout their service life, including accidental explosions, terrorist bombing attacks, and earthquakes. To support engineers and owners in making informed decisions regarding post-blast maintenance strategies for damaged bridges, it is crucial to gain a thorough understanding of the residual performance of affected bridge columns following the aforementioned incidents. This paper aims to investigate the residual seismic performance of concrete-filled double-skin steel tube (CFDST) columns through experimental means after being exposed to blast loading. The study consists of two phases: a field blast test and a quasi-static cyclic test, both conducted to evaluate the residual seismic performance of CFDST columns. Two circular column specimens and two square column specimens, each with similar nominal axial load-carrying capacities, were constructed and tested. One circular and one square column were initially subjected to a contact explosion before undergoing lateral cyclic loading. The remaining two columns were directly tested under cyclic loading to examine their seismic performance in an undamaged condition. By comparing the test results of the blast-damaged columns with those of the intact columns, the residual seismic performance of the blast-damaged columns is evaluated. The results indicate that the blast-damaged columns retain satisfactory lateral strength, stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation capacity, highlighting the resilient performance of CFDST columns in a post-blast earthquake scenario. Furthermore, it was observed that the residual seismic performance of blast-damaged columns is more affected in the loading direction towards the side of blast damage. A residual index of energy absorption capacity is proposed to quantify the residual seismic capacity of blast-damaged CFDST columns. The results demonstrate that circular column exhibits better blast resistance and residual seismic performance compared to the square column. This study contributes valuable insights for the application of CFDST columns in multi-hazard scenarios involving potential contact explosions in seismic regions.

Dynamic responses of aluminum alloy plates coated with polyurea elastomer subjected to repeated blast loads: Experimental and numerical investigation

As one of the commonly used component units of engineering structures, aluminum alloy plates will likely suffer from multiple blast loads in terrorist bombing attacks and industrial explosion accidents. Given such structures, the research of technical measures to resist extreme blast disasters is an important topic. Polyurea, is a potential excellent strategy for improving the blast resistance of aluminum alloy plates, with a promising application prospect. This study experimentally investigated the dynamic response and damage characteristics of polyurea-coated aluminum alloy plates under repeated blast loads, and the microscopic characteristics of polyurea material and Vickers hardness properties of aluminum material after loading were analyzed. Based on the developed numerical model, the plastic deformation and energy propagation laws of composite plates were analyzed. Finally, a parametric study on the coating position of polyurea, blast scaled distance, and number of blasts was conducted. The damage regularity of the aluminum plate was obtained, and the damage assessment was performed. The results revealed that polyurea coated on the back or double sides of the aluminum plate could exhibit improved blast resistance. Under repeated blasts, compared with that of the Category A plate (uncoated polyurea), the Category B plate (coated with polyurea on the back side) exhibited improvements of 33.9% and 31.3% in the local and overall deformation resistances, respectively. The Category C plate (coated with polyurea on both sides) exhibited improvements of 19.3% and 22.5%, respectively. Polyurea significantly alleviated the damage of the aluminum plates after two explosive loads.

Strengthening of clay brick masonry wall with spraying polyurea for repeated blast resistance

As one of the main components of a building, the collapse of masonry walls under blast load and the ejection of debris were essential factors that caused injured and damage to internal personnel and facilities. In terrorist bombing attacks, masonry walls will likely undergo multiple blast loads. It is a significant problem to develop new protection technology to enhance the resistance of masonry walls to multiple blast loads. In this study, the anti-blast protection technology of spraying polyurea is proposed, and a numerical model was developed to accurately predict the dynamic response and damage behavior of unreinforced masonry wall (UMW) and polyurea reinforced walls (PRWs) under repeated blast loads. A detailed micro modeling approach was used to establish a numerical model, and the accuracy was verified by the field test results. The failure mechanism and protection mechanism of the polyurea under repeated blast loads were clarified with microscopic detection technology. Finally, through parametric analysis, the damage behavior of PRW under close-in extreme repeated blast loads was studied. According to the calculation results of the numerical model, the damage level diagrams under different scaled distances were established. The results showed that when the scaled distance was no less than 0.25 m/kg1/3, the existence of the polyurea coatings could provide reliable protection for the wall without catastrophic damage. The contribution is to provide a reliable numerical prediction tool and a reference guide for engineering design that can predict the dynamic response of PRW under repeated blast load, and to provide a scientific basis for the practical application of polyurea in building anti-blast.

Numerical investigations on dynamic responses of subway segmental tunnel lining structures under internal blasts

Numerical simulation of segmental lining tunnel subjected to internal explosive loading is carried out in this paper based on the arbitrary-Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) and finite element (FE) coupled algorithms. A high-fidelity FE model considering assembled features of segmental lining structure is established, and the mapping technique is adopted to accurately simulate the explosion process. The calculated overpressure histories and failure modes of the lining structure fit well with field test results of full-scale specimens, indicating the applicability and accuracy of the numerical model. A more comprehensive numerical model considered the practical service state of segmental lining tunnel is further built based on the verified model. Influences of mechanical properties and pressure levels of surrounding soils on dynamic responses of tunnel structure under internal explosion are investigated. Numerical results show that dominated deformation modes of the segmental lining tunnel under the action of internal explosion include opening deformation at the segmental joints of the charged ring and shear deformation between the adjacent rings. The modest explosion caused by terrorist bombing attacks may severely harm the shield tunnel structure and impair its service performance, especially if the tunnel is buried in soft soil at a shallow depth

Local damage of precast concrete columns with grout sleeve connections under contact detonation

Over the past several decades, the global terrorism is looming large and public buildings have become targets of terrorist bomb attacks. To obtain the blast performance of precast concrete (PC) columns with grout sleeve connections at the background of terrorist attacks, the contact detonation is concerned in this paper. An experimental program with six PC columns and one reinforced concrete column against contact detonation was conducted in a blast testing vessel, in which the effects of charge weight and location as well as connection type of columns on blast damage were studied. Then the finite-element-based (FE) numerical models were built up with LS-DYNA and validated with comparison of experimental results. In the FE model, blast load is simulated using multi-material Arbitrary-Lagrangian-Eulerian (MM-ALE) algorithm. After careful validation, the numerical models are extended to conduct parametric studies, including the effects of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement ratio, column section depth (or aspect ratio), charge weight and location, axial compression ratio on the blast damage of PC columns. Finally, curve-fitting-based models are derived to build up relationships between local damage sizes and the studied parameters, and then verified with part of numerical results. The results show that contact detonation destroyed all the concrete cover at the front face supporting the charge, and resulted in severe spall damage along the four corners and side faces, in which the corner connecting the side and rear face suffered larger damage than that connecting the side and front face. Moreover, the grout sleeves are able to mitigate the damage if the detonation is at the splicing segments. Increasing reinforcement ratio, section depth and axial compression ratio are able to reduce damage sizes, but the beneficial effect differs for the local damage at the column corners and front face.

Residual axial capacity of seismically designed RC bridge pier after near-range explosion of vehicle bombs

The terrorist bombing attacks on public transportation infrastructures, e.g., bridges, were increasing dramatically. Bridge pier damaged under the explosion will lose a portion of axial bearing capacity and may induce the partial and complete collapse of the whole bridge. This paper aims to numerically study the dynamic behaviors and post-blast axial capacity of the seismically designed RC bridge piers subjected to near-range blast loading of vehicle bombs. Firstly, by adopting the multi-material Arbitrary-Lagrangian-Eulerian algorithm, Fluid-Structure Interaction method, and erosion algorithm in LS-DYNA, a reliable and predictive finite element analysis (FEA) approach is established. Based on the existing three series of tests, the FEA approach is comprehensively verified by comparisons of blast overpressure, column deflection, spalling range of concrete cover, and residual axial bearing capacity. Secondly, the explosion scenarios of vehicle bombs on bridge piers are designed, in which the prototype bridge piers for three various earthquake intensity levels (EI7-EI9) are detailed according to the Chinese specification JTGT 2231-01-2020, and the compact and non-compact sedan bombs are concerned according to the requirements of FEMA-428, respectively. Then, the blast resistance of the above three seismically designed bridge piers under two typical vehicle bombs are evaluated based on the residual axial bearing capacity, and the influences of seismic detailing are further assessed quantitatively. Finally, a low-complexity engineering design approach is recommended based upon the seismic design and detailing provisions. The present work can provide helpful references for the damage assessment, blast-resistant design and further strengthening of RC bridge piers against the potential close-in explosions of vehicular bombs.

Residual axial capacity of circular reinforced concrete columns subjected to contact explosions

The threat of terrorist bombing attacks on critical infrastructure has attracted a lot of attentions over the past decades. Contact explosion with a small explosive charge mass can cause severe damage to RC columns. Since columns are the primary load-bearing components in structures, the failure of critical columns can initiate collapse of the entire structure and result in devastating consequences associate with significant casualties and economic losses. To prevent catastrophic structural collapse, the most critical requirement of blast-damaged columns would be the residual capacity to withstand axial load. In this study, the residual axial load-carrying capacity of RC columns damaged by contact explosions was numerically investigated. A high-fidelity physics-based numerical model of RC columns under contact explosions was developed using the non-linear dynamic analysis program LS-DYNA with Arbitrary-Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) and Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) algorithms. The numerical model was comprehensively validated with existing experimental results in literature. An extensive parametric study was carried out to determine the effect of critical design parameters, including explosive charge mass, column diameter, longitudinal reinforcement ratio, and transverse reinforcement ratio on the residual axial load-carrying capacity of RC columns after contact explosions. The damage degree of the blast-damaged columns was quantitatively analyzed with a damage criterion based on the residual axial load-carrying capacity. Based on the parametric analysis results, an empirical formula was developed through multivariable regression analysis method for prediction of the damage degree and residual axial load-carrying capacity of blast-damaged RC columns under contact explosions. The proposed empirical formula can be utilized in preliminary design of RC columns against contact explosions and failure risk assessment of RC columns after contact explosions.

Psychosocial work factors and sick leave risk after a terrorist bomb attack: a survey and registry-based longitudinal study of governmental employees in Norway

ObjectivesStudies show that social support may reduce the negative psychological effects of terror. The aim was to explore the effects of the psychosocial work environment on sick leave risk among...

Predicting the self-centering behavior of hybrid FRP-steel reinforced concrete beams under blast loading

An inelastic single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) dynamic analysis model is developed to predict the entire displacement time-history of concrete beams reinforced with hybrid mixtures of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) and steel reinforcing bars subjected to blast loads. Hybrid FRP-steel reinforced concrete members exhibit strong self-centering tendencies which promote blast resilience through reductions in residual damage, repair cost, and facility downtime after a terrorist bomb attack or accidental explosion. FRP bars provide an internal restoring force that activates self-centering behavior after the inertial loads are removed, while the conventional steel reinforcement and concrete dissipate energy by their inelastic response. The SDOF model is equally applicable to all-steel, all-FRP, and hybrid FRP-steel reinforced concrete flexural members, incorporating all the relevant parameters of flexural response, nonlinearity, and self-centering that have been observed to play an important role in blast tests. These parameters include the type, size, spacing, arrangement, and material properties of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, as well as concrete properties and section geometry. The effect of these parameters is described in terms of nonlinear resistance functions capturing the inbound and rebound flexural response, plastic hinge formulations to account for crack bridging provided by FRP bars, and a hysteretic model for the combined effects of self-centering behavior and stiffness degradation due to accumulated damage from progressively increasing repeated blast tests. A new response parameter, known as the Blast Self-Centering Index (BSI), is proposed to evaluate and assess the residual displacements of all-steel, all-FRP, and hybrid FRP-steel reinforced concrete beams predicted by SDOF analysis. The model has been verified extensively against data obtained from explosively driven shock tube blast experiments.

Self-Centering Hybrid GFRP-Steel Reinforced Concrete Beams for Blast Resilience

Despite having a high strength-to-weight ratio and being chemically inert, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcing bars are not currently used in reinforced concrete protective design due to their brittle nature and lack of ductility. This paper presents research on the innovative use of blended mixtures of FRP and steel rebar to activate self-centering behavior to return blast-loaded elements to their original position after the inertial loads are removed. Self-centering blast-resilient members promise reductions in residual damage, repair cost, and facility downtime after a terrorist bomb attack or accidental explosion. Large-scale reinforced concrete beams with different combinations of steel and glass FRP (GFRP) rebar were designed, constructed, and tested under progressively increasing blast loads generated by the Virginia Tech Shock Tube Research Facility. The results demonstrated that beams with hybrid reinforcing experienced reduced overall residual damage in comparison with similar conventionally reinforced concrete members. Increasing the self-centering ratio (SC) of beams, defined as the ratio of the restoring moment provided by the FRP to the resisting moment provided by energy dissipating steel rebar, increased the blast self-centering tendencies of the hybrid beams. Additionally, if the GFRP rebar ruptured during the blast, the presence of steel prevented a brittle failure mechanism and provided additional energy dissipation and redundancy. To encourage the use of hybrid FRP-steel reinforcement in blast-resistant construction, a series of protective design recommendations are made. Furthermore, a new response limit based on a blast self-centering index (BSI) is proposed to explicitly account for the residual damage state in the protective design process.

Progressive collapse of RC flat slab substructures with unbonded posttensioning strands after the loss of an exterior column

Reinforced Concrete (RC) flat slab structures are mainly composed of load-bearing columns and RC slabs, which are vulnerable to collapse once one or several local load-bearing columns fail due to accidental loads such as terrorist bomb attack or vehicle collision. To investigate the progressive collapse performance of flat slab structures after the loss of an exterior column, static collapse tests were conducted on three 1 × 2 bay RC flat slab substructures. Effect of prestress and layout of the unbonded posttensioning strands (UPSs) on the progressive collapse of flat slab structures was discussed. Experimental results showed that punching shear failure (PSF) foremost occurred at the slab-column connection (SCC) of the failed exterior column during collapse, and then successively occurred at the SCCs close to the corner column and the exterior column adjacent to the failed column. Primary cracks on the top slab surfaces around the failed exterior column generally presented arc-shaped distribution; while primary cracks on the bottom slab surfaces radially propagated from the failed exterior column. Comparing with the flat slab substructure without UPSs in the slabs, the load-bearing capacity of the substructures with UPSs in the slabs significantly improved. Flexural action was the fundamental collapse resistance mechanism in the initial collapse stage, and tensile membrane action gradually formed during collapse. The flexural action, the tensile membrane action, as well as the post-punching behaviors of the slabs resisted the collapse load together before the final collapse occurred. Most of the load applied on the failed exterior column mainly transmitted along the shorter slab bay under the exterior-column-removal scenario. Arranging posttensioning strands in the slabs contributed to reducing vertical deformation of the slabs. The UPSs in the column strip passing through the failed column played a more important role in resisting collapse load than those arranged in the middle strip. The residual flat slab substructures still possessed satisfactory load-carrying capacity even if PSF occurred in one or several SCCs.

Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Pile Subjected to Near-Field Non-Contact Underwater Explosion

High-pile wharf is an important port structure and may suffer from accidental explosions or terrorist bombing attack during the service life. The reinforced concrete (RC) pile is one of the popular vertical load-bearing piles of high-pile wharf structure. As a main load-bearing member of the high-pile wharf structure, the damage of RC pile due to underwater explosive may cause subsequently progressive collapse of the whole structure. In this paper, the dynamic response and failure mode of RC pile in high-pile wharf structure under the near-field non-contact underwater explosion are investigated using a combined experimental and numerical study. First, a typical RC pile was designed and tested for the near-field non-contact underwater explosion. The failure mode and damage of the RC pile specimen were obtained and analyzed. Second, the numerical model of the RC pile under near-field non-contact underwater explosion was established by adopting the commercial software AUTODYN, and then validated based on experimental results. It was shown that the results from numerical model and experimental test compared very well in terms of the damage pattern and lateral displacement. Furthermore, the full-scale numerical model of the RC pile for the near-field non-contact underwater explosion was developed based on the validated numerical model to investigate the damage pattern and failure mode of RC pile under varied underwater explosives. Lastly, the safety distance for the RC pile for the underwater explosion loading with consideration of different explosive mass, the explosive depth and the concrete strength was suggested. The outcome of this study presented reference for analysis, assessment and design of the type of RC pile for high-pile wharf structure subjected to near-field non-contact underwater explosion.

Management of combined massive burn and blast injury: A 20-year experience

IntroductionBlast injuries are complex types of physical trauma resulting from direct or indirect exposure to an explosion, which can be divided into four classes: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary blast injury results in damage, principally, in gas-containing organs such as the lungs (blast lung injury, BLI). BLI is defined as radiological and clinical evidence of acute lung injury occurring within 12h of exposure to an explosion and not due to secondary or tertiary injury. BLI often combines with cutaneous thermal injury, a type of quaternary blast injury, either in terrorist bomb attacks or in civilian accidental explosions. This report summarizes our experience in the management of combined massive burn and BLI at a Shanghai Burn Center in China. MethodsA retrospective observational analysis of clinical data was performed for massive burn patients with or without BLI during a 20-year interval. Patient characteristics, causes of injury, clinical parameters, management, and outcomes were recorded and evaluated. ResultsA total of 151 patients (120 males and 31 females) with severe burn injury (≥50% TBSA) treated at the Burn Center of Changhai Hospital in Shanghai between July 1997 and June 2017 were enrolled in this study. Their mean age was 38.6±17.8 (3–75) years. Among them, 28 patients had combined BLI and burn injury and 39 patients had no BLI or smoke inhalation injury (non-BLI-SII). No significant difference was observed in the burn area or full-thickness burn area between the two groups. The lowest PaO2/fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) ratio during the first 24h in BLI patients was significantly lower than that in non-BLI-SII patients. Exudative changes were observed by X-ray radiography in all BLI patients but not in non-BLI-SII patients within 6h after injury. A significantly higher proportion of colloids were used for fluid resuscitation in BLI patients than that in non-BLI-SII patients. A higher proportion and longer time of mechanical ventilation were needed for BLI patients than those for non-BLI-SII patients, and a higher proportion of patients received sedative agents in the BLI group than those in the non-BLI-SII group. The first escharectomy was performed relatively later in BLI patients than in non-BLI-SII patients because of more time taken by BLI patients to recover from lung injury. The length of ICU and hospital stay in BLI patients was significantly longer than that in non-BLI-SII patients. No significant difference in the overall mortality was detected between these two groups. ConclusionIt is a formidable challenge for clinicians to diagnose and manage massive burn patients combined with BLI. A comprehensive treatment approach is strongly recommended, including fluid resuscitation, airway management, mechanical ventilation, and surgical treatment. Given the high mortality of massive burn patients combined with BLI even in a recognized burn center, more prospective studies are encouraged to assess more effective strategies for the treatment of such patients.

SUN-477 Chronic Variable Stress Worsens Effects of Mild Blast Traumatic Brain Injury on the Stress Response

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects 10 million people annually, attributes to major psychiatric disorders, and is among the leading causes of death and disability. Blast-induced TBI (bTBI) accounts for approximately 80% of all TBIs. These numbers are rapidly rising due, in part, to the increasing frequency of terrorist bombing attacks. The least studied form of bTBI, perhaps because of delayed symptom onset, is mild bTBI (mbTBI). Nonetheless, mbTBI increases the prevalence of psychiatric disorders, including memory impairment, anxiety, and mood disorders. Virtually every mbTBI in the battlefield is preceded and followed by a constant period of stress. However, how stress can prime the brain to deal with an insult, such as mbTBI, remains unknown. This work aims to identify the brain targets affected by mbTBI and elucidate how chronic stress could prime the brain for worse outcomes after mbTBI. In the first experiment, we examined the effect of mbTBI on resting and restraint-induced limbic-HPA axis reactivity in male and female mice 7-10 days post-injury. Mild bTBI increased anxiety-like behaviors (p<0.05) and dysregulated the stress response in a sex-specific manner. In the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, mbTBI decreased (p<0.05) activation of non-neuroendocrine corticotropin releasing factor neurons in females, but not males, suggesting a potential link to autonomic dysregulation. To further examine the impact of mbTBI on HPA axis-relevant limbic structures, we assessed neuronal activation via c-Fos-ir or EGR-1-ir markers in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Mild bTBI blunted the restraint induced neuronal activation observed in male and female infralimbic and prelimbic regions of the mPFC. These data suggest that the mPFC is a potential target of mbTBI in both sexes. In a second experiment, we used the Thy1-eGFP transgenic mouse model to elucidate the effects of mbTBI during a chronic variable stress (CVS) paradigm. This paradigm consisted of two weeks of CVS prior to our single mbTBI model and followed by another week of CVS after the single blast. The adverse effects of mbTBI on anxiety-like behaviors observed following a single mbTBI were further worsened in the animals exposed to CVS when compared to no-CVS animals. These data suggest that CVS makes the system more vulnerable to the effects of mbTBI. Thus, future experiments should consider implementing a stress component when assessing the impact of mbTBI. Our ongoing experiments aim to elucidate the effects of CVS and mbTBI on the dendritic spine architecture of the mPFC. These data will help us understand the mbTBI effects observed in the mPFC and whether the psychiatric disorders seen following mbTBI result from changes in the dendritic connectivity and architecture on the mPFC.

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for severe blast injury of lower extremity after terrorist attack: case report

More blast injuries are encountered in the civilian setting in recent years as terrorist attacks have increased globally. A 17-year-old male patient with severe blast injury of the right lower extremity was admitted to our department on the fifth day after a terrorist bombing attack. Initially he had been admitted to an emergency department with segmental tibia fracture and arterial injury (Gustilo IIIC). An amputation had been foreseen due to ischemia that persisted even after orthopedic fixation and revascularization interventions, followed by fasciotomy incisions. After consultation with our department hyperbaric oxygen (HBO2) therapy was administered twice daily for the first week. Ischemia improved prominently after 10 HBO2 sessions. HBO2 therapy was continued together with antibiotherapy and wound care. The patient underwent a total of 40 HBO2 sessions and two reconstructive operations and healed without amputation. Vascular injuries with concomitant orthopedic trauma cause most of the delayed amputations in bombing attacks since ischemia can persist at the microvascular level even though adequate treatments are applied. HBO2 corrects hypoxia at tissue level and so provides oxygen for the critically ischemic cells in the injured area. HBO2 also enhances host defense and decreases the ischemia reperfusion injury. In this case, HBO2 was effective in survival and functional recovery (salvage) of the extremity together with regular wound care, antibiotherapy and surgical repair.

Terrorist explosive belt attacks: specific patterns of bone traumas.

In cases of terrorist bomb attacks, the issue of victim identification is the principal aim. For investigators and justice, terrorists must also be identified in a timely manner. The fragmentation of bodies caused by explosive devices however makes this operation difficult. The cases presented correspond to six autopsies of perpetrators carrying explosives. Their explosive belts produced different body sections on areas correlated with the location on the body of carrying explosive charges. Indeed, cross-sectional areas are the signature of the level of explosive devices on the body, and some fracture features through the damage of certain areas of constitutional weaknesses are specific elements to consider. These elements can allow a quick distinction between victims and terrorists, in order to assist in the medico-legal process of identification.

Hemodynamic consequences of extremity injuries following a terrorist bombing attack: retrospective cohort study.

Extremities are commonly injured following bomb explosions. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of hemorrhagic shock (HS) in victims of explosion suffering from extremity injuries. Retrospective study based on a cohort of patient records maintained in one hospital's mass casualty registry. Sixty-six victims of explosion who were hospitalized with extremity injuries were identified and evaluated. Sixteen (24.2%) of these were hemodynamically unstable during the first 24h of treatment. HS could be attributed to associated injuries in seven of the patients. In the other nine patients, extremity injury was the only injury that could explain HS in seven patients and the extremity injury was a major contributor to HS together with another associated injury in two patients. In those 9 patients, in whom the extremity injury was the sole or major contributor to HS, a median of 10 (range 2-22) pRBC was transfused during the first 24h of treatment. Six of the nine patients were in need of massive transfusion. Fractures in both upper and lower extremities, Gustilo IIIb-c open fractures and AIS 3-4 were found to be risk factors for HS. Ample consideration should be given to patients with extremity injuries due to explosions, as these may be immediately life threatening. Tourniquet use should be encouraged in the pre-hospital setting. Before undertaking surgery, emergent HS should be considered in these patients and prevented by appropriate resuscitation.

Priming i framing wybranych polskich publikacji o zamachach terrorystycznych w Brukseli w 2016 roku

The purpose of this paper is to define the role of mass media in shaping the image of a terrorist organization on the example of the terrorist bomb attacks carried out on March 22, 2016 in Belgium. The author analyses with particular attention the media with regard to their function of priming and framing in the period immediately following the acts of terror effected in Belgium that have a significant influence on the media image of the terrorist organization Islamic State. The research material is composed of Polish journals “Rzeczpospolita” and “Gazeta Wyborcza” (22.03–8.04.2016). Considering progressive process of mediatization of the public sphere, the author of the paper tries to identify the relationship that exists between the evolution of the image of ISIS and press information.

Virtual Trauma: Prospects for Automediality

Unlike some current discourse on automediality, this essay eschews most of the analysis concerning the adoption or modification of avatars to deliberately enhance, extend or distort the self. Rather than the automedial enabling of alternative, virtual selves modified by playful, confronting or disarming avatars we concentrate instead on emerging efforts to present the self in hyper-realist, interactive modes...

Proposal on risk assessment of reinforced concrete structures subjected to explosive loads

This study proposes an evaluation method to assess the risk of a reinforced concrete structure subjected to an explosive load such as that resulting from a terrorist bombing attack. First, a hazard curve that represents the relationship between the frequency of explosive incidents and the explosive mass was evaluated based on the statistics of terrorist bombing incidents. Second, to evaluate the damage state of the reinforced concrete structure due to the explosive load, fragility curves for the reinforced concrete members, such as beams, columns, and slabs, were evaluated using a single-degree-of-freedom model and a rotational capacity–based criterion. The fragility curve shows the relationship between the damage probability level, such as “no damage,” “small damage,” “collapse,” and an explosive mass. The total failure probability of the reinforced concrete structure was estimated by superposing the fragility curves of the members and by incorporating the reducing effect of floor slabs in the reinforced concrete structure on the blast load. A loss curve was drawn based on the damage state of the reinforced concrete structure by assuming the number of human lives lost and the reinforced concrete structure in each damage state. A risk curve was then derived by combining the hazard curve with the loss curve.