Terrestrial Weeds Research Articles

Nonchemical Aquatic Weed Control Methods: Exploring the Efficacy of UV-C Radiation as a Novel Weed Control Tool.

Aquatic weeds, including invasive species, are a worldwide problem. The presence of aquatic weeds poses several critical issues, such as hindering the continuous flow of water in irrigation channels and preventing the proper distribution of adequate water quantities. Therefore, effective control measures are vital for agriculture and numerous downstream industries. Numerous methods for controlling aquatic weeds have emerged over time, with herbicide application being a widely used established method of weed management, although it imposes significant environmental risks. Therefore, it is important to explore nonchemical alternative methods to control existing and emerging aquatic weeds, potentially posing fewer environmental hazards compared with conventional chemical methods. In this review, we focus on nonchemical methods, encompassing mechanical, physical, biological, and other alternative approaches. We primarily evaluated the different nonchemical control methods discussed in this review based on two main criteria: (1) efficiency in alleviating aquatic weed problems in location-specified scenarios and (2) impacts on the environment, as well as potential health and safety risks. We compared the nonchemical treatments with the UV-C-radiation-mediated aquatic weed control method, which is considered a potential novel technique. Since there is limited published literature available on the application of UV-C radiation used exclusively for aquatic weed control, our review is based on previous reports of UV-C radiation used to successfully control terrestrial weeds and algal populations. In order to compare the mechanisms involved with nonchemical weed control methods, we reviewed respective pathways leading to plant cell death, plant growth inhibition, and diminishing reemergence to justify the potential use of UV-C treatment in aquatic habitats as a viable novel source for aquatic weed control.

Diversity and Population of Weed Propagule in Two Rice Cropping Systems

Weeds can reduce rice yields by 20-89%, mainly due to competition for nutrients, water, sunlight, and growing space. Weeds that grow in rice fields come from propagules previously in the soil. Seedlings are formed from the previous season, so the cultivation system greatly affects them. This study aims to determine the diversity and population of weed propagules in upland rice and lowland rice. This research was conducted by survey method in Semanu District, Gunungkidul Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, by taking soil samples from three plots of upland rice and lowland rice paddy. Soil sampling was conducted four times before tillage, 3, 6, and 9 weeks after planting. The results showed that the diversity of weed propagules in upland rice was higher than in lowland rice fields with more weed propagule species. Annual terrestrial weed propagules dominate in upland rice, while in lowland rice fields, it is dominated by annual aquatic weed propagules. The diversity index of weed propagules in upland rice and rice paddy is included in the medium criteria. The number of species and individual propagule weeds in upland rice is more than in the upland rice fields. The results of this study can be used as a basis for proper weed management so that it does not disturb and harm rice plants.

Plants, animals, and fisheries waste-mediated bioremediation of contaminants of environmental and emerging concern (CEECs)-a circular bioresource utilization approach.

The release of contaminants of environmental concern including heavy metals and metalloids, and contaminants of emerging concern including organic micropollutants from processing industries, pharmaceuticals, personal care, and anthropogenic sources, is a growing threat worldwide. Mitigating inorganic and organic contaminants, which can be coined as contaminants of environmental and emerging concern (CEECs), is a big challenge as traditional physicochemical processes are not economically viable for managing mixed contaminants of low concentrations. As a result, low-cost materials must be designed to provide high CEEC removal efficiency. One of the environmentally viable and energy-efficient approaches is biosorption, which involves using biomass or biopolymers isolated from plants or animals to decontaminate heavy metals in contaminated environments using inherent biological mechanisms. Among chemical constituents in plant biomass, cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, proteins, polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, and animal biomass include polysaccharides and other compounds to bind heavy metals covalently and non-covalently. These functional groups include carboxyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl, amide, amine, and sulfhydryl. Cation-exchange capacities of these bioadsorbents can be improved by applying chemical modifications. The relevance of chemical constituents and bioactives in biosorbents derived from agricultural production such as food and fodder crops, bioenergy and cash crops, fruit and vegetable crops, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation trees, aquatic and terrestrial weeds, and animal production such as dairy, goatery, poultry, duckery, and fisheries is highlighted in this comprehensive review for sequestering and bioremediation of CEECs, including as many as ten different heavy metals and metalloids co-contaminated with other organic micropollutants in circular bioresource utilization and one-health concepts.

Bioconversion of phytotoxic terrestrial weeds into soil conditioning bioproduct through two-stage biodegradation process

Bioconversion of phytotoxic terrestrial weeds into soil conditioning bioproduct through two-stage biodegradation process

Weed biomass: Bioconversion through composting followed by vermicomposting to optimize time required

The potential of biodegradable wastes as resources is explored widely. Biomass conversion into organic fertilizers is substitute to chemical fertilizers for environmental benefits. Vermicompost is one of the quality rich organic fertilizers produced by bioconversion technology with the help of earthworm. The unwanted plants disturbing ecosystem termed as weeds is a major issue for management. The current study focused on the terrestrial weed Lantana camara biomass management through rotary drum in-vessel pre-composting combined with vermicomposting. Vermicomposting (V) and Rotary Followed by Vermicomposting (RFV), both these techniques were performed individually for the stabilization Lantana camara biomass. The Total Organic Carbon (TOC) was 27.88 % and 24.03 % at the end of V and RFV. Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN), Total Phosphorus (TP) obtained were 2.93 %, 11.03/kg respectively from RFV was higher than V alone. The final C/N ratio was <20. The reduced time for RFV as compared to V was observed.

Parthenium Poisonous effect and its Treatment

Parthenium (Partheniumhysterophorus L.) is a weed that produces many seeds and has spread widely rapid growth, ability to spread via waterways and roadways , it is able to spread very quickly Parthenium was spread by vehicles or as a contaminant of seeds. It act as environmental, medical and agricultural hazards. They are also allergenic with pollen causing dermatitis and hay fever in human in livestock from prolonged feeding on parthenium, and milk and meat are tainted affecting their value. This weed is thought to cause allergic respiratory problems, mutagenicity in humans and severe reductions in crop production1. Sesquiterpene lactones (SQLs) are the most important allergens responsible for ACD of parthenium. This plant is not only harmful to agriculture but also is a major factor in multiple human diseases through contagious. Among these are asthma, Allergies, and Stomach diseases. It is used as an antioxidant, an anticancer agent, and an antitumor agent, and its extracts are often used pesticides to control diseases. Parthenium it has some toxic chemical composition due this it exhibits many harmful adverse effects but owing to many limitations associated with the conventional methods, management of parthenium still remains a challenge. Parthenium is considered as the number one dangerous terrestrial weed because of its harmful effects both to human and biodiversity. Many control measures are being used to manage this obnoxious weed. It has both useful effect and non useful effect.

Comparative study between mono-digestion and co-digestion of terrestrial weed (Parthenium hysterophorus)

Parthenium hysterophorus is considered to be among world's top ten worst terrestrial weed due to their reproduction potential. P.hysterophorus can grow within a few weeks and cover entire agricultural land. P.hysterophorus, is difficult to manage as they can re-grow miraculously even after they are completely eradicated. Availability of P.hysterophorus, in abundance, makes attractive feedstock through anaerobic digestion (AD). In mono digestion, biogas production was observed in lesser quantities due to the accumulation of toxic inhibitors. Co-digestion studies are essential to balance nutrients and dilute toxic inhibitors. During the AD process in biochemical methane potential (BMP) assay, food to microorganisms (F/M) ratio 2 (140 mL CH4 g−1 VS on 26th d) was observed for mono digestion of P. hysterophorus. In co-digestion during the BMP assay, mixing ratio 1.5 (165 mL CH4 g−1 VS on 17th d) was observed. After co-digestion significant amount of biogas increment was observed. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comparative study conducted on P.hysterophorus for biogas production.

Synthesizing biochar-based slow-releasing fertilizers using vermicompost leachate, cow dung, and plant weed biomass

Biochar-based slow-releasing fertilizers (BSRF) have been recommended widely for efficient soil nutrient management and crop production. In this study, we examined the N, P, and K release behaviour of pyrolysed (at 350 °C) cow dung (CDB), vermicompost (VCB), and Lantana (LB) weed and impregnated LB (LBVW) and CDB (CDBVW) with vermicompost leachate (1:1 v/v) under a lab-scale trial. BSRFs (CDB, VCB, LBVW and VCBVW) characterization (FT-IR, SEM-EDX and surface area analysis) was done and then tested for its suitability for soil-plant applications. Soil incubation study indicated the slow-releasing behaviour of BSRFs and overall P, N, and K release was found to be in the ranges of 72.3–84.5%, 73.1–79.0%, and 43.1–85.3%, respectively in different BSRFs setups. Furthermore, lab trials suggested the highest P (64.5%), N (75.3%), and K (86.8%) uptakes by the plant (Vigna radiata) in CDBVW and LBVW setups. Moreover, pot trails with moong bean (Vigna radiata) suggested a high growth in shoot and root and plant yield as well in seedlings cultivated with BSRFs. This study indicates that animal manure, vermicompost and terrestrial weed Lantana biochar can be used effectively to prepare BSRFs for efficient soil-plant nutrient management with multiple environmental benefits.

Biodegradation of an intrusive weed Parthenium hysterophorus through in-vessel composting technique: toxicity assessment and spectroscopic study.

Parthenium hysterophorus is a toxic terrestrial weed with its erratic behavior brought on by the presence of toxic compounds. A numerous works have been conducted on the complete eradication of this weed, but due to the residuals exists in soil, the weed re-grows. Current study therefore aims at examining the transformation of this weed by an in-vessel composting approach (rotary drum composter) and the evaluation of toxicity characteristics using Vigna radiata and Allium cepa as bioindicators. The nutritional content such as total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total phosphorus (TP), and total potassium were increased by 38.8, 39.1, and 49.5%, respectively, and the reactor was effective in reducing the biochemical content such as lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose by 43.5, 50.7, and 57.3%, respectively, in the final compost. The thermophilic degradation phase in the reactor existed up to the 8th day of the composting process, which exhibits the highest degradation phase. Meanwhile, the degradation of phenolic, aliphatic, and lignocellulose was investigated and validated using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and powdered X-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis. Although P. hysterophorus exhibited phytotoxic and cyto-genotoxic effects in plant models at the beginning of the composting process, the toxicity potential appeared to be reduced after 20days of composting. Therefore, the study's findings proved that the in-vessel composting of P. hysterophorus can produce a nontoxic, nutrient-rich compost product that could be used as a soil conditioner in agricultural farmlands. The insights of the study are not limited to the nutritional, stability, and quality characteristics but also the toxicity characteristics during the composting process.

Performance evaluation of a novel two-stage biodegradation technique through management of toxic lignocellulosic terrestrial weeds

The present study investigates the biodegradation of two potentially toxic terrestrial weeds Parthenium hysterophorus and Lantana camara, implementing a novel two-stage biodegradation technique; Rotary drum composting followed by vermicomposting (RV). The RV approach was refined for a 7-day thermophilic degradation in an in-vessel rotary drum composter, followed by a 20-day mesophilic degradation utilizing Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae vermi-monocultures. However, rotary drum composting (RDC) was performed for both the weeds (for 27 days), facilitating only initial thermophilic degradation to compare the efficacy of the RV technique. Lignocelluloses analysis revealed that cellulose degradation doubled during RV technique, indicating efficient biodegradation in reactors administered with E. fetida vermiculture compared to RDC (19.60 to 42.80% and 26.80 to 66.50% in P. hysterophorus and L. camara feedstocks). Further, these results also correlated with the X-Ray diffractograms of all trials showing the degradation of crystalline cellulose at 2θ: 20–50° for RV. Moreover, to ensure product safety, the analyzed total heavy metals content also unveiled the advantage of RV over RDC as validated by the accumulation of higher concentrations of zinc (45% and 33% in P. hysterophorus and L. camara feedstocks) and lead (55% and 45% in P. hysterophorus and L. camara feedstocks) in reactors with E. fetida. The material’s seed germination index increased to 80% in the final product of all trials in the RV technique, indicating the diminishing of the phytotoxic nature. Subsequently, pot studies also indicated that the RV technique was coherent in managing noxious weeds.

Rice Waste Hydrolyzation at Subcritical Temperature to Produce Bioherbicide to Control Terrestrial Weeds

Thermal anaerobic hydrolyzation process on rice husk with higher lignin content produced organic complexes constituents including phenolic groups. Phenolic groups expose herbicide effects on growing vegetations, where the process in nature mainly require anaerobic condition. The degradation rate in nature is very slow with very low concentration availability. Thermal hydrolyzation is an appropriate choice to produce phenolics herbicide for sustainable pesticide management and application. This study aimed to identify the potency of rice husk extract by thermal hydrolyzation process as an organic herbicide to control terrestrial weeds. The hydrolyzation was processed in 60-90 bars and 280±20 °C for 30±10 minutes. The existence of the phenolic groups in the hydrolysate was considered for generic active ingredients to control weed in the terrestrial ecosystem. Its damage impact was tested on Borreria alata, Eleusine indica, Cyperus kyllingia, Paspalum conjugatum, Asystasia intrusa, and Axonopus compressus. The assay covered the growth at pre-emergence, early post-emergence, and post-emergence growing stages. The rice waste hydrolysate was capable to suppress the growth of the weed growth especially at the pre-emergence stage at 30-64%, and at early post-emergence stages at the suppressing rate of 77-100%. However, the suppressing affectivity is lower at the post-emergence stage which only 17-25%.

Biological control of Qinghai plateau terrestrial weeds with the A. alternata HL-1

Biological control of Qinghai plateau terrestrial weeds with the A. alternata HL-1

Efficiency of electrohydrolysis pretreatment on terrestrial weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) to cut down the hydrolysis stage during the anaerobic digestion process and continuous reactor study

This study’s main objective is to apply electrohydrolysis pretreatment on P. hysterophorus to reduce the hydrolysis phases and enhance biogas production. Electrohydrolysis pretreatment shows the efficiency of increasing the VFA and sCOD compared with untreated P.hystrophorous. Electrohydrolysis pretreatment at 20 V for 40 min shows the highest sCOD and VFA around (17600 ± 21 mg/L and 780 ± 24 mg/L) respectively, which is 50.17% and 33.33%. Therefore, a biochemical methane potential trial was studied for 50days, where cumulative methane yield was observed 4242 ± 17 mL CH4/g VS after pretreatment and in untreated it was observed around 3063 ± 29 mL CH4/g VS. During the compositional study, soluble lignin and cellulose increased whereas hemicellulose decreased. Morphological and structural changes were captured under FESEM, XRD and FTIR analysis after pretreatment, which found to be effective after pretreatment. During FESEM, ring-like structure was observed after pretreatment, which might be cellulose ring. In XRD study, reduction of high peak was observed. In FTIR study, broad peak after pretreatment signified the weakening of inter and intra hydrogen bond.

Management of invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus through vermicomposting using a polyculture of Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae.

Parthenium hysterophorus is considered one of the most noxious terrestrial weeds which needs to be efficiently managed to sustain the environment and vermicomposting are a promising eco-friendly management technique. In the current study, vermicomposting of P. hysterophorus was carried out using a polyculture of two epigeic earthworm species, i.e., Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae employed in five different vermireactors referred as Rp1, Rp2, Rp3, Rp4, and Rp5 with five mixing ratios 3:7, 4:6, 5:5, 6:4, and 7:3 respectively of P. hysterophorus to cow dung as a blending material. The nutrients in the final vermicompost were determined by analyzing different physico-chemical parameters and the efficiency evaluated by the growth rate of earthworms. After vermicomposting, TKN, TP, and K contents increased with the highest percentage change of 74.74%, 91%, and 47.2% respectively, compared to initial values. Reduction in C/N ratio was observed in all the vermireactors with the lowest C/N ratio of 9.76. EC increased for all the vermireactors during the process and reached in the range of 3.7-3.85 ds/m at the end of the process. The highest percentage gain in biomass of earthworms was 46.25% in Rp2. Vermicomposting of P. hysterophorus is possible for the management of this invasive weed through polyculture of the earthworms E. fetida and E. eugeniae to obtain a value-added organic fertilizer, i.e., vermicompost by a sustainable process.

Use of florpyrauxifen‐benzyl in non‐flooded rice production systems

AbstractThe lack of a flood on rice (Oryza sativa) levees and in furrow‐irrigated rice creates a favorable environment for terrestrial weeds like Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats) to emerge and quickly overtake the crop for a longer portion of the year than in flooded rice culture. Florpyrauxifen‐benzyl is a new auxin herbicide labeled for use in rice that has activity on both grasses and broadleaf weeds, as well as certain sedges. Field experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of florpyrauxifen‐benzyl in a non‐flooded environment. Experiments were conducted in 2017 and 2018 at the Lon Mann Cotton Research Station in Marianna, AR and the Pine Tree Research Station near Colt, AR to evaluate florpyrauxifen‐benzyl within a herbicide‐based weed control program in furrow‐irrigated rice. Programs evaluated included two preemergence herbicide combinations, four mid‐postemergence combinations, and a late‐postemergence application versus none. Another experiment was conducted at the Pine Tree Research Station in 2017 and 2018 to compare florpyrauxifen‐benzyl with 2,4‐D in different herbicide mixtures for weed control on rice levees. Treatments consisted of several commonly used rice herbicides applied alone and in a mixture with florpyrauxifen‐benzyl and with 2,4‐D. In the furrow‐irrigated rice experiment, programs containing florpyrauxifen‐benzyl in the mid‐postemergence application resulted in higher levels of late‐season Palmer amaranth control (96–98%) compared to the standard mid‐postemergence treatment (85%). Additionally, programs that included a late‐postemergence herbicide application controlled Palmer amaranth (98%) compared to programs where no late‐postemergence herbicide was applied (91%). In the levee experiment, mixtures where florpyrauxifen‐benzyl was used offered comparable control of Palmer amaranth to mixtures containing 2,4‐D. Mixtures where 2,4‐D or florpyrauxifen‐benzyl were used controlled Palmer amaranth better than the individual herbicide applied alone. Results from these experiments indicate florpyrauxifen‐benzyl will sufficiently control Palmer amaranth in a non‐flooded environment, providing a good alternative herbicide and viable weed control option in furrow‐irrigated rice and on rice levees.

Snorkeling Strategy: Tolerance to Flooding in Rice and Potential Application for Weed Management

Flooding is an important strategy for weed control in paddy rice fields. However, terrestrial weeds had evolved mechanisms of tolerance to flooding, resulting in new ‘snorkeling’ ecotypes. The aim of this review is to discuss the mechanisms of flooding tolerance in cultivated and weedy rice at different plant stages and the putative utility of this trait for weed management. Knowledge about flooding tolerance is derived primarily from crop models, mainly rice. The rice model informs us about the possible flooding tolerance mechanisms in weedy rice, Echinochloa species, and other weeds. During germination, the gene related to carbohydrate mobilization and energy intake (RAmy3D), and genes involved in metabolism maintenance under anoxia (ADH, PDC, and OsB12D1) are the most important for flooding tolerance. Flooding tolerance during emergence involved responses promoted by ethylene and induction of RAmy3D, ADH, PDC, and OsB12D1. Plant species tolerant to complete submersion also employ escape strategies or the ability to become quiescent during the submergence period. In weedy rice, the expression of PDC1, SUS3, and SUB1 genes is not directly related to flooding tolerance, contrary to what was learned in cultivated rice. Mitigation of flooding tolerance in weeds could be achieved with biotechnological approaches and genetic manipulation of flood tolerance genes through RNAi and transposons, providing a potential new tool for weed management.

Investigating the use of aquatic weeds as biopesticides towards promoting sustainable agriculture.

Aquatic weeds such as muskgrass (Chara spp.), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillate), filamentous algae (Lyngbya wollei), and duckweed (Lemna minor) thrive in farm canals within the Everglades Agricultural Area of South Florida. Their presence, particularly during the summer months is an environmental concern with regards to water quality, in addition to being a nuisance because of their ability to multiply and spread rapidly in open waters causing restricted drainage/irrigation flow and low dissolved oxygen levels. Chemical control is effective but can have undesirable off-target effects, so reduced herbicide use is desirable. Hence, need exists to discover ways in which these weeds could be best managed or utilized. The objective of this research was to evaluate the allelopathic effect of these weeds to determine their use as potential biopesticides. Six aqueous extracts were tested against 100 bacterial strains isolated from plants and soil to evaluate their antimicrobial activity. These extracts were also used to determine their insecticidal and antifeedant effects on fall armyworm (FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda). Both extracts and powder form of the aquatic weeds were tested for their herbicidal activity towards seed germination and growth of three common terrestrial weed species. At a dilution of 1:100 and 1:1,000, none of the aquatic weeds inhibited in-vitro growth of the bacterial strains, with one exception (filamentous algae extract at 1:100 reduced growth of one bacterial isolate by 54%). Water lettuce reduced the survival rate of FAW by 14% while hydrilla and duckweed caused 11% and 9% reduction of FAW growth, respectively. Powdered duckweed inhibited the growth of nutsedge by 41%, whereas filamentous algae powder and extract reduced germination of amaranth by 20% and 28%, respectively. Harvesting these weeds and converting them into useable compounds could not only eliminate the in situ farm canal and water quality problems but also result in development of new soil amendments or biopesticides.

Management of lignocellulosic green waste Saccharum spontaenum through vermicomposting with cow dung

Saccharum spontaenum is considered as an invasive terrestrial weed spread across the world and its management possess big challenge to the research community. The current study illustrates the potential of vermicomposting for the management of lignocellulosic terrestrial weed Saccharum spontaenum under green waste management. The vermicompost experiments were done in five different mixing ratio of Saccharum spontaenum amended with cow dung 3:7, 4:6, 5:5, 6:4, 7:3 in vermireactors referred as Ref1, Ref2, Ref3, Ref4, Ref5 respectively. The vermicomposting was carried out for total 45 days with one time feeding of the earthworms. The study indicates a mature vermicompost can be obtained with enhanced nutrients from proper mixing ratio. The different physicochemical parameters were observed to be varied among the reactors and between vermicomposting time significantly. The final C/N ratio was within 10–16 with highest decrease in Ref1. Earthworm growth was observed to be highest in Ref2 with percentage change of net biomass of earthworms with 34.25%. The highest TOC loss was observed to be 31.4% change in Ref2 and maximum TKN was 2.95% in the final vermicompost of Ref3. Even though the mixing ratio of Ref1 and Ref2 was found to be ideal for the degradation of Saccharum spontaenum, the other reactors also produced acceptable quality end product. The study further reveals that the earthworm species Eisenia fetida was highly suitable for the biodegradation of this lignocellulosic weed material.

Physico-chemical changes during vermicomposting of a terrestrial weed, Mikania micrantha and leaf litters of Acacia auriculiformis and Bambusa polymorpha mixed with cowdung

Physico-chemical changes during vermicomposting of a terrestrial weed, Mikania micrantha and leaf litters of Acacia auriculiformis and Bambusa polymorpha mixed with cowdung

Feasibility of vermicomposting for the management of terrestrial weed Ageratum conyzoides using earthworm species Eisenia fetida

This study illustrates the feasibility of vermicomposting of an invasive terrestrial weed Ageratum conyzoides for environment and economic benefits. This study presents the different mix proportion of substrate and cow dung as blending material in the vermicomposting process. It also advocates the potential of earthworm species Eisenia fetida for the bioconversion of A. conyzoides into a valuable end product. The work is based on biochemical characterization along with earthworm growth and cocoon production to evaluate the properties of the final product. The vermicompost obtained from all the reactors attained stabilization with increase in nutrients and decrease in total organic carbon (TOC), CO2 evolution rate after the end of the process. The pH was obtained in the range of 6.7–7.4 during vermicomposting. The final C/N ratio falls within 12–17 in all the reactors. The highest Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) value observed in the final vermicompost was 2.67% which was higher than the initial value 1.83%. TOC decreased up to 30.05% at the end of the process. The earthworm biomass increased in a similar trend in all the reactors with highest biomass change of 25.75%. The results indicate that the biomass of A. conyzoides can be efficiently utilized to produce a mature vermicompost with the potential of further applications. It may be inferred from the findings that vermicomposting can be an alternative environment friendly option for the management of A. conyzoides and recommendable for on site management of the weed in an economical way.