Ternary Plots Research Articles

Process variations of a Neoproterozoic delta system in response to the influence of mixed-energy systems and sea-level fluctuation: an insight from Simla Group, Lesser Himalaya, India

Deltas generally exhibit morphological and architectural variations due to repercussions of fluvial, wave and tidal currents. The Neoproterozoic Chhaosa Formation, Simla Group, Lesser Himalaya, a shallow-marine, mixed-energy deltaic system represents a unique example of variability of those processes at different scales. Outcrop-based facies analysis was combined with application of sequence stratigraphy in the present study to elucidate signatures of fluvial, tide and wave currents. The proximal part of the delta plain deposits (FA1) displaying fluvial attributes like sand sheets, large and small scale trough cross-beddings, channels, are combined with tidal activity. Delta front (FA2) deposits and prodelta deposits (FA3) essentially record mixed tidal and wave activity like mud drapes, flasers, lenticular, wavy beddings, syneresis cracks, tidal rhythmites, low angle cross-stratification oscillation ripples, hummocky and swaley cross-stratifications. Coastal process classification ternary plots are prepared to identify the interplay of different processes and their control in the deposition of Chhaosa delta system. The Chhaosa Formation has developed during elevated pulse rates of progradation and retrogradation, overlapped with elongated phases of progradation. A comparison between the Chhaosa delta and modern as well as ancient delta system has been made to understand the control of mixed-energy processes on sedimentation patterns throughout the global history.

Geochemical and Petrographical Characteristics of the Madzaringwe Formation Coal, Mudrocks and Sandstones in the Vele Colliery, Limpopo Province, South Africa: Implications for Tectonic Setting, Provenance and Paleoweathering

The sedimentary rocks of the Madzaringwe Formation in the Tuli Basin have been investigated using geochemical and petrographic methods to reveal their source area composition, tectonic setting, provenance and paleoweathering conditions. The petrographic studies show that the rocks consist mostly of clay minerals and quartz. The major elements geochemistry indicates that the rocks of the Madzaringwe Formation have the same source area. Based on the discriminant function plots, it can be inferred that the rocks are of quartzose sedimentary provenance, suggesting that they were derived from a cratonic interior or recycled orogen. The binary plots of TiO2 versus Zr and La/Sr against Th/Co shows that the rocks were derived from silicic or felsic igneous rocks. The tectonic setting discrimination diagrams of SiO2 against Log (K2O/Na2O), Th–Sc–Zr/10, and TiO2 versus (Fe2O3 + MgO) support passive-active continental margin settings of the provenance. The A–CN–K (Al2O3–CaO + Na2O–K2O) ternary diagram and binary plot of the index of compositional variability (ICV) against chemical index of alteration (CIA) shows that the rocks have been subjected to moderate to intensive weathering. Geochemical and petrographic characteristics of the rocks point to uplifted basement source areas predominantly composed of sedimentary rocks and/or granite-gneiss rocks. These source areas might have been from adjacent areas near the Tuli coalfield which include the Limpopo Belt (igneous and sedimentary rocks), and basement uplifted rocks of the Beit-Bridge Complex, consisting of the granite, granite-gneisses and schists.

How Are the Flower Structure and Nectar Composition of the Generalistic Orchid Neottia ovata Adapted to a Wide Range of Pollinators?

Plant-pollinator interactions significantly influence reproductive success (RS) and drive the evolution of pollination syndromes. In the context of RS, mainly the role of flower morphology is touched. The importance of nectar properties is less studied, despite its significance in pollination effectiveness. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test selection on flower morphology and nectar chemistry in the generalistic orchid Neottia ovata. In 2019–2020, we measured three floral displays and six flower traits, pollinaria removal (PR), female reproductive success (FRS), and determined the soil properties. The sugars and amino acids (AAs) were analyzed using the HPLC method. Data were analyzed using multiple statistical methods (boxplots, ternary plot, one-way ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis test, and PCA). Variation of flower structure and nectar chemistry and their weak correlation with RS confirms the generalistic character of N. ovata. In particular populations, different traits were under selection. PR was high and similar in all populations in both years, while FRS was lower and varied among populations. Nectar was dominated by glucose, fructose, and included 28 AAs (Ala and Glu have the highest content). Sugars and AAs influenced mainly FRS. Among soil parameters, carbon and carbon:nitrogen ratio seems to be the most important in shaping flower structure and nectar chemistry.

Permo-Carboniferous Climate Change: Geochemical Evidences from Lower Gondwana Glacial Sediments, Rangit Valley, Sikkim Lesser Himalaya, India

The Rangit Gondwana Basin of Sikkim in the lesser Himalaya witnessed a wide span of climate change during the Permo-Carboniferous period. The principal objective of the present study is to document this Permo-Carboniferous climate change in the form of a geochemical signature preserved in the siliciclastic facies of the Rangit Pebble Slate Formation. The stratigraphic sequences of the Rangit Gondwana Basin are categorically well defined and subdivided into upper and lower sequences on the basis of their depositional environment. The lower sequences of the Rangit Gondwana basin are comprised of massive diamictite with large stromatolitic dolomite boulders and dropstone embedded in the coarser sandstone which indicate the cold glaciomarine environment of deposition, whereas upper sequences consist of repeated alternate beds of sandstone, black shale and coal seam with a regular interval depicting the fluvial and deltaic environment of deposition. The enrichment of SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, MnO, MgO, and K2O indicates that these sediments were mostly derived from felsic rock source areas. Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) and Index of Compositional Variability (ICV) CaO + Na2O + K2O/Al2O3, and SiO2 vs. (Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O) values suggest that the sediments maturity and paleoclimatic environment deposition of the sediments of lower sequences was cold and semi-humid whereas the deposition of sediments of upper sequences was warm and humid. The A-CN-K ternary plot and CIA vs ICV binary plot also indicate and verify that the source areas were subjected to prolonged intense chemical weathering from low to high grade due to shifting of cold to warm humid paleo-climatic condition.

Evolution characteristics of maturity-related sterane and terpane biomarker parameters during hydrothermal experiments in a semi-open system under geological constraint

In order to accurately assess the thermal maturity of highly/over-mature shales in Paleozoic strata in southern China, hydrothermal experiments of shale samples from the Dalong Formation from bed 18 of well-exposed Shangsi PTB Section was conducted in a semi-open system under various conditions of geological constraint. The saturated extracts of pyrolyzed shale samples were subjected to gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses. The results indicated that hydrothermal experiments of Dalong shales in the presence of fluid pressure (FP), lithostatic stress (LS), water, catalyst of clay minerals and trace elements, is partially equivalent to catalytic hydropyrolysis in terms of the catalytic hydrogen effect for the release of bound biomarkers from geomacromolecules of kerogen and asphaltene. The evolutional trend of maturity-related biomarkers were classified into the following three categories: (a) the most common maturity parameters (e.g., Ts/(Ts + Tm) and C29S/(S + R)) initially increased and then decreased with a pyrolysis temperature (450 °C) at the reversal point during maturation; (b) the parameters (e.g., C32S/(S + R)) primarily increased or decreased and reached a temperature (400 °C) of tuning point, and then remained unaltered with increasing temperature (c) the parameters (e.g., C27DS/S); firstly increased, and then declined at a specific turning point temperature (425–500 °C), and thereafter continued to increase until the end of heating process. As a result, the threshold temperature for the release of bound sterane or terpane occurred in the range 400–500 °C. Most maturity-related sterane and terpane biomarker parameters cannot be applied to evaluate the maturity of highly/over-mature shale. However, the C30M/C30H ratio and S/T ratio, which are strongly correlated with temperature, may be employed to assess extremely mature shale from these Paleozoic strata due to the integrated effects of multiple factors in the thermal evolution process of biomarkers. This is very important for the exploration and development of shale gas in southern China. Additionally, the values of several source-related biomarker parameters derived from C27–29 regular steranes are relatively constant during maturation, such as the ternary plot of the C27–29 αααR sterane versus the C27/C29 αααR sterane ratio. These are useful indicators for distinguishing the genetic source of highly/over-mature shales.

MEDI: Macronutrient Extraction and Determination from invertebrates, a rapid, cheap and streamlined protocol.

Macronutrients, comprising carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, underpin many ecological processes, but their quantification in ecological studies is often inaccurate and laborious, requiring large investments of time and bulk samples, which make individual‐level studies impossible. This study presents Macronutrient Extraction and Determination from Invertebrates (MEDI), a protocol for the direct, rapid and relatively low‐cost determination of macronutrient content from single small macroinvertebrates.Macronutrients were extracted by a sequential process of soaking in 1:12 chloroform:methanol solution to remove lipid and then solubilising tissue in 0.1 M NaOH. Proteins, carbohydrates and lipids were determined by colorimetric assays from the same individual specimens.The limits of detection of MEDI with the equipment and conditions used were 0.067, 0.065 and 0.006 mg/ml for proteins, carbohydrates and lipids respectively. Adjusting the volume of reagents used for extraction and determination can broaden the range of concentrations that can be detected. MEDI successfully identified taxonomic differences in macronutrient content between five insect species.Macronutrient Extraction and Determination from Invertebrates can directly and rapidly determine macronutrient content in tiny (dry mass ~3 mg) and much larger individual invertebrates. Using MEDI, the total macronutrient content of over 50 macroinvertebrates can be determined within around 3 days of collection at a cost of ~$1.35 per sample.

Upper Cretaceous-Upper Eocene mud-dominated turbidites of the Belaga Formation, Sarawak (Malaysia): 30Ma of paleogeographic, paleoclimate and tectonic stability in Sundaland

The Upper Cretaceous-Upper Eocene Belaga Formation is characterized by thick deep-water sediments that were accumulated as one of the biggest ancient submarine fans covering a time interval of 30 Ma. Although the Belaga Formation is the extensively investigated formation in the Rajang Group, its source and tectonic setting are still arguable. This study utilizes, for the first time, detailed mineralogical and geochemical investigations on sediments from the Belga Formation to examine its origin. The Belaga Formation is subdivided into five members that are made of seven lithofacies dominated by mudstone. Clay fractions from the mudstones of the five members are composed of illite (40–60 wt %), kaolinite (30–45 wt %) and chlorite (5–15 wt %). Al2O3/TiO2 ratios and calculated SiO2 (wt. %) as well as Zr–TiO2, Al2O3–TiO2, SiO2–Al2O3/TiO2 and Cecn-La/Ybcn plots suggested felsic to intermediate igneous source rocks for all members probably the Lower-Upper Cretaceous granites and tonalities of the Schwaner Mountains situated southwest of the studied area. The abundance of kaolinite, Sr/Cu ratios, C-values, Sr/Cu ratios, Sr/Cu versus Ga/Rb plot and high Chemical Index Alteration (CIA) indicate warm and humid paleoclimate throughout the formation of the Belaga Formation. Geochemical proxies from the major oxides (SiO2–K2O/Na2O, K2O/Na2O–SiO2/Al2O3 binary plots and CaO–Na2O–K2O ternary plot), trace elements (Sc/Cr–La/Y discrimination diagram) and uniform REE patterns with distinct Eu negative anomalies propose a mature passive margin tectonic setting for the five members of the Belaga Formation. Facies analysis indicate typical turbidite sequences in all members. Domination of mudstone and the passive margin tectonic setting suggest a channel-levee complex without lobes submarine fan model (Type III) for these turbidites. Stability in source area composition, paleoclimate, palaeogeography and tectonic setting of Sundaland during the Late Cretaceous-Late Eocene (~30 Ma) indicated from sedimentology and geochemical proxies is consistent with the global paleogeographic and paleoclimatic models for this area during this period. Due to their geological and economic importance as potential hydrocarbon source in the region an all over the world, results of this study provide new insights for the architecture and sedimentology of turbidites.

Ternary plots of public interest in cultural human-nature interactions: Google Trends-based culturomics of the mediterranean olive triptych

Abstract The Mediterranean olive triptych –i.e. the conceptual integration of an ecosystem (the olive-grove), a product (olive-oil) and a nutrition/diet scheme (Mediterranean olive-based diet)– is a discernable cultural model in Europe. In this paper, we attempt to explore the potential and limitations of statistical analysis of compositional data –especially ternary plotting techniques– vs. typical representations of Google Trends-based Conservation Culturomics. In that perspective, typical representations of GT-data in published Culturomics literature, e.g. reference term/country/language/time, are considered as descriptors of variation of public interest (2D trend lines, 3D graphics and triangular projections). Ternary plots, i.e. a typical representation of compositional data, conventionally differ significantly from the previous representations, since the primary GT-data are weighted so that ternary sum equals to 1 (or 100%). We present the technique for such a calculation method. The comparison of these representation techniques allows for strongly diverging interpretations. Lower level interpretations show significant differences between (Mediterranean) countries and/or groups-of-countries (Mediterranean vs. non-Mediterranean) where higher ternary compilations do suggest that cultural pattern across Europe actually diverge. The overall conclusion of this research is that GT-based Culturomics should overcome earliest simplistic approaches, such as linear regressions; and, it has to progressively construct a new epistemology where the significance of accumulation of empirical evidence should be strictly connected to scientific paradigm shift.

Roller blinds characterization assessing discomfort glare, view outside and useful daylight illuminance with the sun in the field of view

This research presents an experiment where the relationship between view outside (VO), daylight availability (DA) and glare protection (GP) of nine shading fabrics were evaluated. This kind of shading device is placed on the market (Argentina) without a proper characterization of their lighting performance, leading to an inadequate application. Glare was evaluated through DGP model, by means of HDRI technique, calibrated through externally measured luminance and validating with vertical illuminance. Vision outside was evaluated through the View Clarity Index (VCI) and daylight availability was assessed through Useful Daylight llluminance (UDI) dynamic daylight metric. Finally, two roller blind selection procedure were proposed. The first one considering each parameter independently (GP, VO and DA) and the second criteria, weighing the scores through a ternary plot.

Application of Fracture Barrier Analysis in Well Stimulation Planning for Upper Baturaja Limestone Formation Based on Well Log & Drill Cutting Data from OBF-01 and OBF-04 Wells, Offshore Southeast Sumatra

In general, the South Sumatra Regional Stratigraphy of the Baturaja Limestone Formation facies is deposited on the Buildup Carbonate (Reef) and the Limestone Clastic Carbonate of the Baturaja Formation which grows as a buildup reef on the platform in the Basement High (Horst) underneath is the Lemat Formation volcanic deposits. Referring to the facies model in general, the Baturaja Limestone Formation, the depositional environment starts from Shelf Lagoon Open Circulation - Winnowed Edge Sand - Organic Buildup - Fore Slope - Deep Shelf Margin - Open Sea Shelf - Basin, meaning that carbonate is formed starting from pure organic Cabonate Buildup Reef without / a little sludge / mud to the Carbonate Basin where more muddy / mud is present, this condition causes clay minerals to also more and more mix with Terigenous Clastics (Quartz, feldpar). The complexity of the Baturaja Limestone Formation requires fracture barrier analysis associated with well stimulation planning in order to increase oil productivity with the appropriate method. Fracture barrier fracture analysis is an approach method to determine the depth interval that becomes a barrier in hydraulic fracturing by correlating the results of geomechanical analysis from well log data and mineralogical analysis from drill cuttings data, so that a commonly used well stimulation method can be selected, namely hydraulic fracturing, acidizing, and acid-fracturing.From the ternary diagram plot the XRD (bulk) analysis results show that the distribution of the main minerals (Quartz, Clay, Calcite) is more dominant in the ductile zone, hard to frac category. This shows that all the depth intervals in the OBF-01 and OBF-04 wells are more ductile, and are not recommended for hydraulic fracturing. From the XRD (bulk) analysis, Calcite mineral is more dominant, so for well stimulation work it is recommended to use acidizing or acid-fracturing.

Evaluation of hydrocarbon potential with insight into climate and environment present during deposition of the Sonari lignite, Barmer Basin Rajasthan

Lignite samples from the Sonari mines of Barmer Basin, Rajasthan, India have been studied for the first time by applying advanced petrochemical techniques. The objective of the study was to reconstruct Paleomire conditions and to examine the source rock potential of the lignite-bearing sequence. Based on the mean huminite/vitrinite reflectance values (0.24–0.31%Ro), all of the samples studied are lignite B in rank. Geochemical analysis results show, the atomic ration H/C and O/C ranges from 0.03–0.15 and 0.27–0.61 respectively, hydrogen index (HI) and oxygen index (OI) ranges from 173 to 256 mg HC/g TOC and 29–55 mg CO2/g TOC respectively, with Tmax value (415–416 °C), entails these lignites are thermally immature and contain type III kerogen. The studied lignites have total organic carbon (TOC), and S2 values vary from 41.24–49.19wt% and 78.53–119.81 mg HC/g rock, respectively, which indicate that these lignites may be served as good hydrocarbon source rock.The lignites are principally composed of huminite (mean 47.5 vol%) and inertinite (mean 31.4 vol%) group of macerals with a low concentration (mean 8.5 vol%) of liptinite macerals. The predominance of attrinite in the Sonari lignite samples suggests that woody vegetation has undergone significant degradation. Petrographic indices such as TPI (Tissue preservation index; 0.92–2.13), GI (Gelification index; 0.97–8.25), GWI (Groundwater influence index; 0.34–1.50), and VI (Vegetation index; 0.16–1.84) indicate deposition in a wet forest paleomire and peat formation under ombrotrophic to mesotrophic hydrogeological conditions. Ternary plots based on maceral and microlithotype entails fluctuating water table condition during peat deposition.The GC-MS (Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) data shows that the ratios, Pr/Ph pristine/phytane (˂1), Pr/C17 (0.57), Ph/C18 (0.25) and carbon preference index (CPI) value 3.73 along with δ13C (−25.04%) values indicate that the Sonari lignites are composed primarily of gymnosperms taxa which formed under relatively dry and cold paleoclimatic conditions. Besides, FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) spectra give the signature of a C–H aliphatic stretching region and predominate methylene group in the aliphatic carbon region, which is also observed in the NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance).

Experimental investigation on structured packed bed liquid desiccant dehumidifier: An optimal mixture design of experiments strategy

Abstract Maintaining human thermal comfort and extensive power consumption of the conventional heating ventilating and air-conditioning systems drive the researchers to look for an alternative dehumidification system. Among the potential alternatives, the liquid desiccant dehumidification system has evolved as a long-term renewable and less power consuming system due to its effective controlling capability of humidity. In the present study, an experimental investigation is carried out to demonstrate the performance of lithium bromide (LiBr) and potassium formate (HCOOK) desiccant solution mixture in a spray type counterflow-packed bed adiabatic dehumidifier. Subsequently, ternary plots and 3D-contour trade-off paradigms are patterned to assess the performance parameters using an optimal mixture design methodology. Additionally, empirical correlations are developed to pattern the performance parameters (moisture removal rate (MRR), enthalpy effectiveness (ξh) and moisture effectiveness (ξm)) as a function of blend combinations. Further, the present study endeavours to explore the application of offline calibration methods based on a balanced optimum mixture design-centred desirability approach for optimizing the mixture proportion to obtain the optimal performance parameters (i.e., MRR, ξh and ξm). The wettability area is explained based on the static contact angle on a plane glass. The results showed that the contact angle was decreased from 47.3° to 44.1° for the optimum mixture of LiBr solution (37.2%-LiBr +17.8%-HCOOK), which further confirmed the higher MRR. Lastly, the tuning effect of the liquid to gas flow rate on the dehumidifier performance and economic viability of LiBr-HCOOK blends are studied.

Mixed mode (I/II) fracture energy of cement emulsified asphalt mortar under intermediate temperature

Being a combination of sand, cement, water, and asphalt emulsion, Cement Emulsified Asphalt Mortar (CEAM) has better toughness and flexibility properties than cement mortar. Given the multiphase nature of CEAM, it is susceptible to micro-cracking during the setting process and also due to other factors such as traffic loads, undesirable atmospheric conditions. Given the typical direction of loading and cracking in these mortars, they are likely to experience mixed-mode fractures. Therefore, this study investigated the fracture properties of CEAM at service temperature in mixed mode I&II fractures. For this investigation, the mixed-mode fracture energy was determined through experiments on Semi-Circular Bending (SCB) specimens with the volume fractions of mortar treated as independent variables and the material behavior assumed to be viscoelastic at ambient temperature. Considering the need to investigate the effect of mix design ratios and their interactions, to reduce the number of experiments, and to limit these ratios to the ranges that produce acceptable rheological and mechanical properties, the D-Optimal mixture design method at 5% significance level was used to optimize the design of experiments and related analyses. Next, a regression model was developed for the relationship between fracture energy in each mode (I, II, I&II) and the mortar constituents. Also, the optimum mix design range to reach maximum fracture energy in all three modes was determined by graphical optimization. Analysis of the results with ternary contour plots showed the dependence of fracture energy and the optimum mix design range in the studied modes on the mix ratios of the CEAM constituents. The Cement and asphalt were identified as the independent variables with greatest effects on fracture energy variations and the optimum mix design. The results also revealed that as the asphalt emulsion-to-cement ratio increased, the maximum carried force decreased and the deformation corresponding to this force increased.

Modalflow: Cross-Origin Flow Data Visualization for Urban Mobility

Pervasive data have become a key source of information for mobility and transportation analyses. However, as a secondary source, it has a different methodological origin than travel survey data, usually relying on unsupervised algorithms, and so it requires to be assessed as a dataset. This assessment is challenging, because, in general, there is not a benchmark dataset or a ground truth scenario available, as travel surveys only represent a partial view of the phenomenon and suffer from their own biases. For this critical task, which involves urban planners and data scientists, we study the design space of the visualization of cross-origin, multivariate flow datasets. For this purpose, we introduce the Modalflow system, which incorporates and adapts different visualization techniques in a notebook-like setting, presenting novel visual encodings and interactions for flows with modal partition into scatterplots, flow maps, origin-destination matrices, and ternary plots. Using this system, we extract general insights on visual analysis of pervasive and survey data for urban mobility and assess a mobile phone network dataset for one metropolitan area.

New insights into biomass combustion ash categorisation: A phylogenetic analysis

Combustion of biomass within power stations is a more sustainable way to generate electricity than the use of fossil fuels provided the feedstock is sustainably grown. The physical and chemical properties of biomass combustion ash from different feedstocks were statistically analysed using 168 published database records. Plant taxonomy of the feedstock has a strong influence on the major element composition of the ash, and biomass feedstocks that are burnt commercially can usefully be categorised as hardwood, softwood, grass crop residues, and non-grass crop residues. The most abundant elements in hardwood ashes are calcium > potassium > phosphorous, whereas in the softwood ashes they are calcium > silicon > potassium. The most abundant elements in eudicot straw ashes are potassium > calcium > chlorine > phosphorous, and in grass straw ashes they are calcium > potassium > calcium > chlorine. Differences in major element chemistry between the feedstock categories are visualised using a ternary plot of the normalised calcium oxide, dipotassium oxide, silicon dioxide contents. Other properties depend principally on whether the feedstock is herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous feedstocks produce significantly more ash (typically 5–9%) than woody feedstocks (typically 1–2%) and their ash has a significantly lower initial deformation (melting) temperature than ash from woody feedstocks, and thus has greater potential to form slag and foul the furnace. These findings allow for the impact on ash characteristics to be include in commercial and operational decisions about power station feedstock.

Geochemistry of the Yudong bauxite deposit, south-eastern Guizhou, China: Implications for conditions of formation and parental affinity

The Yudong bauxite deposit is located in the Kaili–Huangping bauxite-concentrated area, in south-eastern Guizhou Province, China. The ore-bearing rock series consists of the lower part (Fe-bearing member) and middle part (Al-bearing member) of the Middle Permian Liangshan Formation, covering the Upper Devonian Gaopochang Formation. The elemental content in the ore-bearing profile is variable. In general, Al, Ti, V, Cr, Zr, Nb, Hf, Th, and U increase from the Fe- to the Al-bearing member, whereas Si, Fe, Rb, Cs, Ba, and total rare earth elements (REE) decrease. These observations indicate the occurrence of bauxitisation, which corresponds to a process of elemental variation during which Si and Fe were dissolved and migrated, and Al was enriched. Compared with Ordovician–Silurian (O–S) mudrock, the ore-bearing rock series are enriched in Al, Ti, V, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, Th, and U, but depleted in Si, Fe, Rb, Cs, and Ba as a result of weathering. The REEs show negative correlations with Si, Fe, K, Na, Ca, Mg, and Y, indicating that the REEs may be associated with clay, Fe-bearing, and Y-bearing minerals.The La/Y ratio, (La/Yb)N ratio, and Ce anomalies show that the Fe-bearing member formed in an alkaline reducing environment, whereas the Al-bearing member formed in an acidic oxic environment. The immobile element ratios, Eu anomalies, REE distribution patterns, and Cr–Ni diagram, as well as the comparison with worldwide bauxite deposits, show that the ore-bearing rock series may have originated in the O–S mudrock, with contributions from the dolomite of the Gaopochang Formation. Furthermore, the position of the samples in the Al2O3–Fe2O3–SiO2 ternary plot, the chemical index of alteration, and the strong positive correlations of some stable elements (such as Al, Ti, Zr, Hf, Nb, and Ta) indicates that the degree of weathering gradually increases from the O–S mudrock to the bauxitic mudrock, and further increases into the bauxite; the bauxitic mudrock and bauxite therefore originated from the O–S mudrock. The laterisation products of the O–S mudrock from the northern part of the ore collection area were transported to the karst depression in the early stages of the Middle Permian. The weathering products of the O–S mudrock and a small amount of the Gaopochang Formation dolomite accumulated on the karst interface, forming the original bauxite layers through cycles of compaction and concretion. These bauxite layers were then uplifted to or near the surface during the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, eventually, forming karstic bauxite.

Reservoir quality estimation using a new ternary diagram approach applied to carbonate formations in north-western Iraq

A new reservoir quality ternary plot (RQTP) of effective porosity, shale volume, and matrix is presented in this study. We show it to be a useful tool for first-order estimation of the petrophysical zones and reservoir classes of each unit within a reservoir. Subsequently, we combine the RQTP results with permeability and fracturing intensity data in carbonate rocks to provide a better overall characterisation of reservoir quality. The approach has been applied to the Butmah Formation, a thick variable carbonate succession of Liassic (Lower Jurassic) rocks in north-western Iraq. The RQTP approach divides carbonate reservoirs into classes according to: (i) a measure of porosity, (ii) the fraction of shale, and (iii) the fraction of non-shale matrix. The outcome of applying this model to the Butmah Formation indicates that the best reservoir quality is identified in Unit 4, which consists of fine to medium dolomite rocks. These rocks are not associated with anhydrite cement or dissolved later due to late dissolution, presenting as clean carbonate with complex pore network heterogeneity. These types of rocks were classified as Rc2 and Rc3 using the RQTP Model. By contrast, the worst reservoir qualities (Rc7) were identified in Unit 1 which is composed of cemented limestone that shows low pore network heterogeneity (predominantly uniform pore sizes), low porosity, and poor permeability.

Differentiation of carbon black from black carbon using a ternary plot based on elemental analysis

Carbon black (CB) is composed of engineered nanoparticles that are commercially produced by partial combustion of hydrocarbons. It is mainly used as a reinforcing agent in vehicle tires. Although the potential health effects of CB have been investigated extensively, some toxicological reports interchange CB with black carbon (BC), which has similar features, thereby misusing the term. BC is an undesirable byproduct of the incomplete combustion of fuels. Therefore, there is a need to differentiate CB from the unintentionally produced nanomaterials (BC) in nano-toxicity, environmental, and human health studies. To distinguish clearly CB from BC, it is important to find the key parameters from several characteristics of two substances. The fundamental physicochemical properties of commercial CB and naturally formed BC were conducted. Based on the elemental analysis, we found three key factors, which could be used to differentiate the CB from BC. And thus, herein, we propose a ternary plot of the aH/C–log(C/b)–1/H combination for use in differentiating CB from BC. The plot of the 100H/C–log(C/10)–1/H combination of elemental ratios separated the CB domain from the BC domain symmetrically. The effectiveness of the ternary chart was validated using 37 samples (nine samples in this work, 25 sample results taken from references studies, and three samples from the field). Therefore, the ternary plot could be used as a prescreening tool for distinguishing CB from BC.

Investigation of the main and interactive effects of mix design factors on the properties of cement emulsified asphalt mortars using Mixture Design of experiment

This study investigated the effect of mixture components including cement, asphalt emulsion, sand, and water on mechanical and rheological properties of Cement Emulsified Asphalt (CA) mortars (type I and II). For this investigation, compressive strength, elastic modulus, segregation, fluidity (J funnel), and spread diameter and time (specific to type II mortar) tests were performed on fresh and hardened specimens. SEM technique was also employed to inspect the micro-structure of CA mortars. To study the effect of mix design factors and their interactions in the domain where rheological and mechanical requirements are met, the Mixture Design method was used in conjunction with the D-Optimal algorithm to design the experiments and analyze the results. After assuming a quadratic model for the relationships between response variables (mechanical and rheological properties) and independent variables (mixture components) including the main effects and two-way effects, 15 randomized mix designs were obtained for each type of mortar (30 mix designs in total). The test of compressive strength was performed on cubic 50 × 50 × 50 mm specimens at the age of 7 and 28 days. The Elastic modulus of the mortars was determined from the strain-strain diagram pertaining to the 28-day compressive strength specimens. Segregation was evaluated by the use of cylindrical 50 × 50ϕ specimens. Tests of fluidity, spread diameter, and spread time were performed according to the standards of the Ministry of Railways of China. The experimental results were used to develop the estimation models of the responses, and the effect of factors and their interactions on mechanical and rheological properties were studied at 95% confidence level. The estimated statistical models could accurately predict the performance of the mortars and were therefore employed to find the optimum combinations of mixture components. Trace and ternary contour plots were drawn to analyze and discuss the effects of mixture components and their interactions on the behavior of type I and type II mortars in each experiment. Finally, the superposition principle was used to combine the responses collected from the experiments, and a series of optimum mix designs based on low, moderate, and high cement contents were devised for both types of mortar.

Potentiality of new dark clay-rich materials for porous ceramic applications in Ouled Sidi Ali Ben Youssef Area (Coastal Meseta, Morocco)

Potential use of raw clayey deposits from El Jadida, Morocco, in the manufacture of traditional ceramic products has been evaluated through a careful sampling and an in-depth characterization of the outcropping features around Ouled Sidi Ali Ben Youssef area (El Jadida city). We collected six representative clay-rich materials (C1–C6) for subsequent analyses by several spectroscopic and mineralogical techniques including physico-chemical, mineralogical, and thermal analyses. Our results revealed high amounts of oxides, mainly SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO and MgO. Those ferruginous clays were found suitable for dark ceramic bodies. Further mineralogical examination confirmed low to medium contents of clay minerals, but subordinated by quartz, calcite, dolomite and plagioclase as the main nonclay minerals. Ternary diagram plots indicated that the studied clays were suitable for structural clay products and clay roofing tiles. C5 sample exhibited the best physico-chemical and mineralogical properties due to its illitic nature (64%), low quartz content (28%), high plasticity index (32) and lower loss on ignition (10.84%). Therefore, C5 clayey sample was selected as a potential candidate to be mixed with expanded perlite (EP) for the production of insulating ceramics. Specimen were prepared from the new mixture (i.e., C5 and EP) by pressing and firing at 1100°C. The obtained ceramic bodies were ascertained by addressing their bulk density, water absorption, shrinkage, bending strength, thermal conductivity, structural and mineralogical properties.