Ternary Blended Cement Research Articles

Modelling of fresh properties and strength activity index with microstructure characterisation of ternary cement incorporating waste glass and granulated blast furnace slag

Research in innovative construction materials has focused on utilising supplementary materials in cementitious composites to promote sustainable development and reduce CO2 emissions. Within this context, this study aims to investigate the fresh properties and assess the pozzolanic activity of ternary blended cement by incorporating two industrial waste materials, namely waste glass (WG) and granulated blast furnace slag (GBS), as cement replacements up to 30%. A mixture design approach was employed for composition optimisation, and mathematical models were implemented to achieve this. XRD and SEM/EDS analyses were conducted to examine the structure and composition of the cementitious matrix. The results indicate that the setting time was prolonged compared to the reference mixture. Furthermore, based on the results of the SAI (Strength Activity Index) test, an acceptable level of strength development was demonstrated, confirming that WG and GBS possess the potential to replace cement while meeting the minimum strength requirements outlined in the specifications. Microstructure analyses revealed good adhesion between WGP, GGBS, and the cementitious binder. This research contributes to the development of eco-efficient binders that exhibit increased cement replacement ratios and qualities comparable to, or even superior to, traditional cement systems.

Strength and suction development of cemented paste backfill with ternary cement blends

In this paper, the effect of ternary binder containing Portland cement type I (PCI), slag, and limestone (LS) powder in varying proportions on the suction development and the mechanical strength of cemented paste backfill (CPB) was investigated. Mechanical tests, microstructural analyses (thermo-gravimetry analysis (TG/DTG) and mercury intrusion porosimetry), and monitoring (suction, electrical conductivity, and temperature) experiments were conducted on CPB. In the first part of this study, binary binders with two different PCI:slag proportions, 50:50 and 80:20, were examined with no LS, followed by the slag replacement with increasing weight percentages of LS from 0% to 20% by weight of the total binder, with constant cement content. The results indicate that the slow slag hydration kinetics decreased the suction and strength gain rate at a young age in the binary sample with high slag content (50 wt.%); however, its latent hydraulic and pozzolanic properties enhanced the strength gain at a later age, from 28 days. The addition of 5 wt.% and 10 wt.% LS to the ternary binder system improved the early age strength of CPB up to 7 days and 1 day, respectively, compared with the binary control samples, i.e., CPB with slag and without LS. While the addition of up to 10% LS to the ternary binder improved the rate of suction development and increased suction at early ages, beyond 10%, the addition of LS slightly decreased mechanical performance at all ages. Overall, the results obtained reveal that up to 50 wt.% slag with up to 10 wt.% LS with cement could be used as a ternary binder to improve the early age strength and suction development rate of CPB studied without significant loss in compressive strength at advanced ages. The results of this research could be of great benefit to the mining industry through the use of a ternary binder to replace cement, which could improve the overall performance of the CPB system, facilitate a more sustainable CPB design, and improve tailings management practices and overall economics.

Performance evaluation of ternary blended cement concrete partially replacement of natural sand with granite quarry dust

Cementitious composites are the most frequently used man-made material, with a 25 billion tonne manufacturing volume and 5% greenhouse gas emissions. Concrete composites release a lot of CO2 into the environment. Thus, replacing concrete composite raw material is a priority. To reduce this industry's carbon footprint, large-scale reuse of industrial byproducts, including Fly Ash (FA), Silica Fume (SF), and Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (GGBS) in cementitious composites, is growing. This method addresses the waste management for industry byproducts in two ways. The mechanical strength and durability of cementitious composite products with many ingredients must be recognised. This study's major goal is to evaluate high-strength cementitious composites' mechanical strength and durability. FA (20%, 30%, and 40%), SF (5%, 7.5%, and 10%), and GGBS (10%, 15%, and 20%) binder were used to make high-strength cementitious composites. Waste management has developed into a problem for the environment. The illegal and unethical practices involved in mining natural river sand (NRS) have gotten worse. Therefore, by substituting Granite Quarry Dust (GQD) for fine aggregate, the lack of NRS for a building is prevented. GQD was employed to replace natural river sand at different levels of replacement as the fine aggregate phase in 10%, 20%, and 30%. The fresh cementitious composites properties were evaluated, strength properties such as compressive strength, flexural strength, and split tensile strength were also evaluated and additionally, the durability characteristics such as water sorptivity and the Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT). We shall evaluate it with normal concrete based on the results.

Performance evaluation of super absorbent polymer modified cement mortar with nano-silica/GGBS

Modified cement mortar plays a major role in enhancing the properties of conventional cement mortar such as strength, durability, better adhesion, reduce porosity and shrinkage and improve workability. Certain modifiers, like industrial by-products, can be incorporated into mortars to promote sustainability and reduce environmental impact. The main aim of this study is to develop Super Absorbent Polymer Modified cement mortars with Nano Silica/GGBS. In this study, conventional cement mortar blended with Nano Silica and Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP) as one combination then GGBS and SAP blended mortar as another combination was examined to mitigate the negative impact of SAP. Ternary Blended cement mortars prepared with various SAP dosages of 0.25% of cement and 0.5% of cement. Nano-Silica is an additive used in the range of 1%, 1.5%, and 2% of the weight of cement. A combination containing GGBS and SAP, GGBS is a replacement for cement in the range of 15%, 30%, and 45% to the weight of cement. The combined effect of altering SAP and Nano-silica/GGBS composition on the mechanical, durability, and microstructural properties were studied using experimental investigation. Peak improvement in the compressive strength of the control mix of 6.52% is noted in the mix combination that contains 0.25% SAP and 15% GGBS replacement. The durability test revealed that the weight loss minimized by 19.58% and strength loss minimized by 36.17% due to acid attack is noted in the combination of GGBS and SAP. Weight loss minimized by 36.17% and strength loss minimized by 22.71% due to sulphate attack is noted in a mix containing GGBS. From experimental investigation, 30% & 45% GGBS replacement in place of cement had no significant improvement in mechanical, durability, and microstructural properties compared to 15% GGBS replacement, which optimum obtained in this study to alleviate the negative consequence of SAP when used as an internal curing agent.

Properties of Concrete Containing Large Volumes of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag and Ground Coal Bottom Ash with Lime Kiln Dust

Currently, there is no report on the combined use of ground coal bottom ash (GCBA) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as supplementary cementitious material (SCM) with lime kiln dust (LKD) as an additive in mortar. Hence, the current work aimed to investigate the impact of the addition of LKD on the properties of ternary blended cement mortar consisting of a large volume of GCBA and GGBS as SCM. The total substitution level of cement was up to 80%, where 50% of GGBS was combined with 0 to 30% of ground CBA. LKD was used with a content of 0%, 4% and 8%. A polycarboxylate-ether-based superplasticiser was used to achieve the mortar’s flow diameter of 200 ± 10 mm. Also, the fine aggregate-to-binder and water-to-binder ratios were fixed at 3.0 and 0.4, respectively. The result revealed that the setting time of the mortar increased by increasing the cement replacement level by GCBA. Besides, the setting time was reduced with increased LKD content. All the mortar mixtures are considered good quality according to the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) results. The UPV values decrease with the increased GCBA replacement ratio but increase with extended curing ages. The mortar incorporating up to 15% GCBA achieved comparable or greater strength than the control mortar (50% OPC and 50% GGBS) at a curing age beyond 28 days. Moreover, increased strength performance was noticed with increased LKD content from 0% to 8%.

Sustainability of concretes with binary and ternary blended cements considering performance parameters

This paper examines the sustainability of cementitious materials and concrete. Although the environmental impact of these materials is often evaluated based on their CO2 emissions per ton of cement or m3 of concrete, incorporating performance parameters into sustainability indices is crucial for a more comprehensive assessment. This study evaluates the sustainability of concretes with and without supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), considering compressive strength and durability performance as performance parameters. Results show that the most sustainable concretes have the highest compressive strength and best durability performance. Furthermore, the importance of using locally available materials is highlighted, as transporting SCM over long distances can outweigh the benefits of using them as a replacement for Portland cement.

Appraisal on mechanical, durability and ecological performance of sustainable cementitious mortar by using Taguchi optimization technique

This research investigated the performance of ternary blended cement mortars containing recycle brick powder, ground granulated blast furnace slag and nano-silica experimentally and statistically. The Taguchi method was employed to create a design of experiment with L16 Taguchi array for blended mixes. Analysis of the experimental results was evaluated by analysis of variance and used to determine the statistical effect of parameters. In the construction industry, the major portion of demolition contains brick waste that requires a huge area for disposal and also causes environmental pollution. In this study, various blended mortar samples with different levels of recycled brick clay (0%, 5%, 10% and 15%), ground granulated blast furnace slag (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%) and nano silica (0%, 2%, 4% and 6%) were produced and their compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic young modulus, water absorption and permeable pores were determined. Recorded parameters revealed that mixtures blended with 10% RBP, 20% GGBFS and 6% NS (MR10G20NS6) give maximum compressive strength; whereas, mixtures blended with 15% RBP, 60% GGBFS and 0% NS (MR15G60NS0) exhibit minimum embodied energy, carbon emission and cost involved in production. Based on the findings, it is recommended that the Taguchi optimization analysis approach could be employed efficiently in such research.

Carbon footprint of reinforced concrete columns with and without supplementary cementitious materials

The construction sector consumes a large quantity of natural resources and generates a great deal of carbon dioxide emissions and wastes, affecting its sustainability. Replacing Portland cement with supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) could reduce the environmental impact. This paper examines the carbon footprint of reinforced concrete columns. It focuses on the influence of increasing the steel cross-section and reducing the clinker factor by replacing Portland cement with SCM. Eighteen concrete mixtures were selected and classified according to the specified compressive strength at 28 days of curing using binary and ternary blended cements. Columns were designed consisting of such concretes and employing different reinforcing steel cross-sections. The life cycle assessment was conducted on ISO 14040 standard. The embodied carbon dioxide (ECO2) of the reinforced concrete columns was determined. The results show that the higher the compressive strength of concrete, the lower the carbon footprint of the columns. Concretes with a high volume of SCM replacement and low compressive strength at 28 days do not show the lowest carbon footprint since it requires a greater volume of material to withstand the bearing capacity. The carbon footprint of the columns increases as the steel section increases. Furthermore, increasing the compressive strength of concrete is less beneficial for reducing the carbon footprint of the column when the steel cross-section is increased. Portland cement is the component material of concrete that contributes the most to the concrete carbon footprint, and steel has the highest ECO2/tonne. Replacing Portland cement with SCM reduces ECO2 at one point of the life cycle and may increase the material volume and ECO2 at another. The lowest carbon footprint of compressed reinforced concrete elements is achieved for the higher-strength concretes and the minimum steel cross-section.

Comparative environmental assessment of limestone calcined clay cements and typical blended cements

Decarbonization of the cement and concrete industries is one of the top priorities on the path to a carbon-neutral economy. This article presents a novel model for evaluating the emissions from the production of metakaolin (MK) as a supplementary cementitious material used in ternary blended cements (e.g., 35% metakaolin, 15% limestone, and 50% portland cement) and an accompanying decisions-support tool (MKC-Tool). Applications with a case study in California showed 36%–39% reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ternary blends with MK compared to portland cement. Compared to commercially available blended cements, the ternary blend showed the lowest global warming potential. All the cements containing fly ash showed higher GHG intensities than the ternary blend (16%–42% higher GHG emissions). The development of cements made with portland cement, metakaolin, and limestone at an industrial scale will have the potential to contribute 5%–50% to the global reduction of GHG emissions from the cement industry.

The hydration of ternary blended cements with Fe-rich slag from non-ferrous metallurgy and limestone

Fe-rich slags originating from non-ferrous metallurgy have shown promising properties as a new type of supplementary cementitious material (SCM). However, their combined use with limestone has not yet been investigated in detail. The goal of this study is to elucidate whether this yields a positive effect as observed for aluminosilicate SCMs with limestone. Compressive strength, hydration kinetics and products as well as pore solution concentrations of ternary blended cements with at least 50 wt% replacement of PC by limestone and non-ferrous metallurgy slag are investigated up to 150 days. Although there is no significant change in the reaction degree of clinker or slag upon addition of limestone, a slight compressive strength enhancement and increased bound water content were observed, originating from formation of additional carbonate AFm phases. Finally, partial replacement of slag by limestone appeared to suppress the formation of siliceous hydrogarnet in favor of a (Fe, Mg)-Al-layered double hydroxide.

Development and strength prediction of sustainable concrete having binary and ternary cementitious blends and incorporating recycled aggregates from demolished UAE buildings: Experimental and machine learning-based studies

This study investigates the mechanical properties of concrete mixes containing recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) from demolished buildings in Abu Dhabi, aiming to promote sustainable construction practices. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag and fly ash were used as supplementary cementitious materials in 70 concrete mixes, incorporating varying RCA replacement levels (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, and 100%). Uniaxial compressive and flexural tests were conducted, revealing that concrete with 20% RCA can be utilized in structural applications, as its strength exceeded 45 MPa. Most ternary blend mixes achieved the target design strength, excluding 100% RCA mixes. Analysis of variance evaluated the significance of strength differences across RCA levels, and accurate machine learning-based models were developed for predicting the compressive and flexural strengths of eco-friendly concrete containing RCA. The findings encourage wider adoption of RCA in structural applications, contributing to more sustainable concrete practices in the construction industry.

Packing density investigation of blended cement pastes incorporating waste perlite and recycled concrete powder

Widely available industrial local waste materials could be viable solutions as supplementary cementitious materials. Aside from their possible positive effect on material properties, benefits are also expected in the environmental and economic sense. This is the case mainly because these materials do not have value in the market and are discarded as waste. This research examines locally abundant waste powders from the production of recycled concrete aggregate and perlite. For the investigation, the wet packing density method was used based on volumetric replacement ratios of cement ranging from 2.5 to 12.5% and 2.5 to 7.5% for waste perlite and recycled concrete powder, respectively. The ternary blended cements showed beneficial behaviour when compared to reference containing solely ordinary Portland cement. On the other hand, compressive strength is one of the key indicators of porous materials' mechanical and durability performance. Compressive strength measurements for the blended cement pastes were also obtained to identify the possible enhancement in the packing density and its effect on the mechanical properties of cementitious materials. It has been demonstrated that focusing just on packing density for investigation of the mechanical performance of cementitious materials when alternative solutions are concerned might not be the most robust approach.

Impact of Limestone–Metakaolin Ratio on the Performance and Hydration of Ternary Blended Cement

Once sulfates become limited, the interaction of limestone with metakaolin (MK) is initiated, resulting in the formation of carboaluminates in a blended cement system. In this study, two different types of MKs (sourced from coal mining residue and soft clay) were adopted to examine limestone–MK ratios of 1:8, 1:4, 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1, by fixing the cement and MK content at 55% and 15%, respectively. The optimal limestone–MK ratio of 1:4 was found (equal to limestone content of 3.8%) to achieve the highest compressive strength of 60 MPa due to the formation of more carboaluminate content in both MK blended cement systems. This finding was corroborated with the thermodynamic modeling that the highest hydrates volume was achieved at the optimal limestone–MK ratio of 1:4. An overdosage of limestone reduces its reaction degree, reflecting the fact that excessive limestone content could only acts as filler in the system.

Hydration of ternary blended cements with sewage sludge ash and limestone: Hydration mechanism and phase assemblage

The hydration kinetics and phase assemblage of ternary blended cements composed of sewage sludge ash (SSA) and limestone were investigated. Isothermal calorimetry reveals an inhibition effect of SSA on the hydration of C3S within the first day, while the hydration degree of C3S in ternary blended cements exceeds that in PC after 3 days. The reaction between SSA and limestone generates additional carboaluminate phases and inhibits the transformation of AFt to monosulfate, increasing the stability of AFt. This reaction is reflected on the second peak in the deceleration period of heat flow curves. The generation of a large amount of carboaluminate phases has a significant effect on porosity refinement and strength development of ternary blended cements. The pozzolanic reaction of SSA generates C-(A)-S-H with high Si/Ca and Al/Ca atomic ratios. Iron from the dissolution of SSA is captured by C-(A)-S-H, leading to the increase in Fe/Ca atomic ratios of C-(A)-S-H.

Promoting the resource utilization of oil-based drilling cuttings pyrolysis residues in cement products

This study assessed the feasibility of manufacturing clinker and cement from oil-based drilling cuttings pyrolysis residues (ODPR). The effects of calcination temperature, ODPR content, and ODPR/GGBS (ground granulated blast furnace slag) ratio on the performance of cement were studied. In addition, the environmental performance of clinker and cement products were evaluated. The results showed that the addition of ODPR lowered the calcination temperature and improved the burnability of raw cement meal. The physical-mechanical and chemical compositions of cement products (compressive strength (28-d) of 36.43 MPa, initial setting time of 302 min, final setting time of 386 min, SO3 content of 3.06%, and Cl− content of 0.05%) could meet the Chinese standard of “Common Portland Cement (GB 175-2007)” under the optimum raw material mixing (ODPR contents of 2.17% for produced clinker and 7.5% for ternary blended cement). Approximately 98.44 kg of ODPR could be utilized when manufacturing 1 tonne of cement products, which is higher than the latest study.Moreover, the environmental performance test of clinker and ternary blended cement could meet the requirements of corresponding Chinese standards. This study provides an effective solution for recycling ODPR in the oil and gas industry.

Comparative effects of different real conditions in the microstructure and properties of ternary blended cement mortars for being used in rehabilitation works

The use of ternary binders in commercial cements is very low, at least in Spain. A possible field of application of these ternary cements would be the rehabilitation of coatings of old buildings, whose performance may be affected by the external environment. The goal of this research is to analyze the comparative effects of two in-situ environments in the microstructure and several service parameters of mortars with several ternary binders. The real environments verified the requirements of classes XC3 and XC4 of Eurocode 2. The mortars were also exposed to an optimum condition. Reference mortars with ordinary Portland cement and binary mortars were also studied. Mercury intrusion porosimetry, carbonation depth measurements and mechanical strength tests were performed. The real in-situ environments produced a carbonation development, an overall lower pore refinement and worsening of mechanical properties. Mortars which incorporated at least one active addition generally presented a better performance.

Influence of superplasticizers on the workability and mechanical development of binary and ternary blended cement and alkali-activated cement

A comparative study of the effect of superplasticizers on different formulations of binary and ternary cement and alkali-activated cement (AAC) is presented. The need to find sustainable alternatives to the manufacture of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), together with the increasing demand for superplasticizer admixtures for a range of applications, motivate this study. Superplasticizer admixtures are designed for OPC so, in presence of supplementary cementitious materials, such as metallurgical slags and combustion ashes, or in alkaline environments, their performance may differ. To assess the influence of the admixtures on these formulations in presence of additions and alkaline media with high and low pH, the fresh and hardened properties of the cementitious matrixes are evaluated. Experimental results show that plasticizing effect in composite cement does not depend on the addition nature (slag or fly ash) and it is well maintained for at least the first two hours after mixing but, in the case of AAC, this effect drops rapidly probably due to lack of chemical stability of the admixtures in alkaline media. Regarding the properties in the hardened state, polycarboxylate admixtures in composite cement do not imply significant variations in mechanical strengths at an early age, but they do in AAC, which presents a detriment of around 17%. Mercury intrusion porosimetry reveals that the incorporation of polycarboxylate refines the pore structure of the cementitious matrixes.

Evaluation of pozzolanic activity of ternary blended supplementary cementitious material with rice husk ash and GGBS

The utilization of industrial and agricultural waste materials as supplementary cementitious material in blended cements provides an adequate solution for reducing the greenhouse emission and the environment concerns associated with waste management. Few literatures have been reported on the partial substitution of cement with the blended usage of mineral admixtures such as GGBS and RHA in cement mortars. The effect of blended usage of the mineral admixture as partial replacement of cement are investigated based on the physical and pozzolanic properties of ternary blended cement mortar. An optimal proportion of RHA -GGBS blended supplementary cementitious material is proposed based on strength activity index for utilizing them in ternary blended cement. The blended supplementary cementitious material with 30% rice husk ash and 70% ground granulated blast furnace slag as constituent materials are identified as the optimal proportion for achieving better pozzolanic activity.

A spectroscopic study on ternary blended cement concrete

This works aims to study the effect of Silica Fume (SF) on the properties of High Alumina Cement (HAC), Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and the addition of 5, 10, 15 and 20%SF were prepared using Groundwater. The nature of the reactions was dependent on the amount of water (W/C=0.4) present in the paste. The grinded samples were characterised by using XRD analysis. The experimental results of the compressive strength and setting time were measured. The highest increase of compressive strength was achieved in the early period of setting which indicates an improvement in the early hydration of the mixture. The kinetics of hydration is well explained and evidenced that 10% addition of SF is optimum for this blend.

Investigation on Roles of Packing Density and Water Film Thickness in Synergistic Effects of Slag and Silica Fume.

The ternary blended cement with finer slag and silica fume (SF) could improve the packing density (PD) through the filling effect. The excess water (water more than needed for filling into voids between the cement particles) can be released to improve the fresh properties and densify the microstructure which is beneficial for improving the hardened properties. To verify the hypothesis and reveal how and why (cement + slag + SF) the ternary blends could bring such advantages, the binder pastes incorporating slag and SF with various water-to-binder ratios were produced to determine the PD experimentally. To evaluate the optimum water demand (OWD) for maximum wet density, the influence of the dispersion state of the binder on PD was investigated using the wet packing density approach. The effect of PD of various binary and ternary binder systems on water film thickness (WFT), fluidity, setting time, and compressive strength development of cement paste was also investigated. The results show that the ternary blends could improve the PD and decrease the water film thickness (WFT). The enhanced PD and altered WFT are able to increase fluidity and compressive strength. The ternary blends could improve the compressive strengths by increasing PD and exerting nucleation and pozzolanic effects.