Terms Of Fatty Acid Composition Research Articles

Ploidy and fruit trait variation of oil-tea Camellia: Implication for ploidy breeding1

Plant polyploidy often occurs along with higher yield and superior quality. Therefore, obtaining polyploid germplasms is a significant part of breeding. The oil-tea Camellia tree, an important native woody plant that produces high-quality edible oil, includes many species of Camellia with different ploidies. However, whether higher ploidy levels in oil-tea Camellia trees are related to better traits remains unclear. In this study, the ploidy levels of 30 different oil-tea Camellia strains in 3 different species in the sect. Paracamellia were determined by flow cytometry and chromosome preparation, and the phenotypic characteristics and fatty acid composition of the fruits were examined by field observations and laboratory analyses. The correlations between the ploidy level of oil-tea Camellia and the main traits of the fruit were investigated . Our results showed that 10 Camellia lanceoleosa strains were diploid, 10 Camellia meiocarpa strains were tetraploid and 10 Camellia oleifera strains were hexaploid. Hexaploid C. oleifera had larger fruit size and weight, more seeds per fruit, larger seed weight per fruit, higher oil contents and larger yield per crown width than tetraploid C. meiocarpa and diploid C. lanceoleosa, but their fruit peel thickness and fresh seed rate were significantly lower, and these traits were significantly correlated with ploidy. In addition, in terms of fatty acid composition, hexaploid C. oleifera had a higher oleic acid content than tetraploid C. meiocarpa and diploid C. lanceoleosa, but their linoleic acid, linolenic acid and arachidonic acid contents were lower. The contents of palmitic acid, stearic acid and total unsaturated fatty acids were not significantly correlated with ploidy level. In conclusion, there were certain correlations between the main characteristics of oil-tea Camellia fruit and the ploidy level, and increasing ploidy level led to an increase in fruit yield, with no effect on oil composition. The discovery of the variation in the main characteristics of oil-tea Camellia fruit with different ploidies will facilitate germplasm innovation and lay a foundation for ploidy breeding and mechanistic research on fruit traits.

Fatty acid profiling of almond germpalsm grown in the Western Himalayan region of India

Aim: Nutritional profiling of almond genetic resources for their utilization and further use in the breeding programme. Methodology: The nuts of 32 almond genotypes were collected from the experimental farm of ICAR-CITH, Srinagar. Using a Soxhlet fat apparatus and 100ml of petroleum ether as a solvent, almond oil was extracted from 5 g of ground kernel. The fatty acid content of almond oil was analyzed by GC 30 (Perkin Elmer Autosystem XL) equipped with a CP-Wax 52 CB column (Varian Inc.) (50 x 0.25 mm, 0.2 μm). Results: The total oil content in these genotypes ranged between 41.82% (CITH-A-21) and 51.86% (Waris). The major fatty acids found were oleic acid (53.70-80.81%), linoleic acid (11.63-36.88%), and palmitic acid (5.19-8.13%). Stearic acid (1.01-2.53%) was estimated at a lower proportion, while α-linolenic acid was found in trace amounts (0.05-0.18%). The oleic: linoleic acid ratio varied from 1.46 (CITH-A-21) to 6.95 (CITH-A-06), conversely the highest (115.42) and lowest (93.96) iodine values were recorded in CITH-A-21 and CITH-A-06, respectively. The lowest content of saturated fatty acids (6.32%) and the highest content of unsaturated fatty acids (93.69%) were found in CITH-A-17 whereas contrasting results were observed in Nonpareil. The highest monounsaturated fatty acids (80.81%) and lowest polyunsaturated fatty acids (11.71%) were found in CITH-A-6. Oleic acid content was negatively correlated with linoleic acid (r = -1.00), palmitic acid (r = -0.67) and stearic acid (r = -0.68). Principal component analysis indicated that among the fatty acids, the oleic acid, linoleic acid, and Oleic/Linoleic ratio were largely responsible for the separation on the PC 1. Among the different almond genotypes, CITH-A-17 and CITH-A-06 were found to be promising in terms of fatty acid composition. Interpretation: The present study identified the genotypes with a high Oleic/Linoleic acid ratio, which is important for crop improvement programme and commercialization of these genotypes. Further, the present study also confirms that the Kashmir region is suitable for growing almonds with fatty acids composition at par with commercial almond cultivars grown in major almond-growing countries in the world. Key words: Almond, Breeding programme, Fatty acid profile, Germplasm, Oil content

Development of technology of cooked sausages with a changed fatty acid composition for military personnel in the Armed Forces of Ukraine

The peculiarities of the nutrition of servicemen of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, the requirements for the chemical composition of daily rations, and calorie content were analyzed. It was established that the diet of the military has an insufficient volume of proteins, carbohydrates, and vitamins, in particular, vitamins A and C. It is noted that the food of the analyzed category of people contains an excess of lipids, which are unbalanced in terms of fatty acid composition. Boiled sausage with a changed chemical composition is proposed to ensure the rational nutrition of military personnel. The justified formulation and technology of boiled sausage are presented. A feature of the development is the use of fat emulsion from internal pork fat and olive oil in a ratio of 1:1. To stabilize the emulsion, dry milk was added in the amount prescribed by the recipe. It was established that the addition of fat emulsion to the hydrated proteins of low-fat raw materials, beef and chicken, made it possible to stabilize the minced meat system, to obtain a tender, juicy and, at the same time, elastic consistency. The combination of internal pork fat and olive oil in the recipe of cooked sausage made it possible to increase the mass share of poly- and monounsaturated fatty acids by 10.5 % and reduce the share of saturated fatty acids. However, the use of only two fats did not balance the proportion of ω-3 fatty acids. To enrich ω-3 fatty acids, it is recommended to add soybean or rapeseed oil. The use of dietary chicken, fats rich in monounsaturated fatty acids, vitamin A and vitamin C allowed us to devise a recipe for cooked sausage of high quality and a changed chemical composition. Consumption of this product could balance the diet and increase the resistance of the personnel of the Armed Forces of Ukraine to negative external factors

Fatty acid profiling and oxidative stability of biscuits available in the market of the city of Ludhiana, India

India has occupied third position in biscuit manufacturing with an average production of 1.95 million tonnes. The major ingredients in biscuit manufacturing are refined wheat flour, sugar and fat. Fat to be used must be chosen carefully as it affects quality of final product in terms of fatty acid composition and oxidative stability. Therefore, the present work was planned to study fatty acid profile of highly consumed baked products of biscuit family such as biscuits and cookies available in market. The study was carried out to do fatty acid profiling of a range of highly consumed baked products of biscuit family as a primary objective and also, to determine oxidative stability of these products by analysing peroxide value and free fatty acid content. The most commonly consumed packaged and unpackaged bakery products were selected and were bought from the local market of Ludhiana city on the basis of a survey conducted on 200 subjects. The selected products were analysed for fatty acid composition and oxidative stability using standard methods. Fatty acid profiling of 22 bakery products of biscuit family was done. Palmitic acid was the most abundant among all fatty acids in packaged and unpackaged samples. Peroxide value of all the products even after storage period of three months was found below the permissible limits (< 10 meq/kg). Free fatty acids value of all the products also did not cross acceptable level of 0.5 percent. Out of total selected eight brands, six were national and two were international. Amount of palmitic acid was higher in the products belonging to local brands.

Physico Chemical Properties and Fatty Acid Profile of Blended Vegetable Oil

Modifying dietary fat intake is essential for reducing and preventing cardiovascular disease risk. In recent years, blending oil has shown to be a more commercially viable method of improving the nutrient profile of oil while preserving a balanced fatty acid composition. The present study aims at designing blended oil and analysing its physicochemical properties and fatty acids profile. Flaxseed, groundnut, safflower, gingelly, and sunflower oil were acquired from retail outlets in Coimbatore. All five vegetable oils were combined into two blends: blended oil - I (Sunflower - 50 ml: Flaxseed-12.5 ml: Groundnut-12.5 ml: Gingelly-12.5 ml: Safflower-12.5 ml) and blended oil - II (Safflower -50 ml: Flaxseed-12.5 ml: Sunflower-12.5 ml: Groundnut-12.5 ml: Gingelly -12.5 ml). The physical and chemical properties of the blended vegetable oil. Fatty acids profiling of blended oil was carried out using the standard procedure using Gas Chromatography Flame Ionization Detector. Modified oil was equally beneficial in terms of fatty acid composition. The peroxide values of blended oil-I and II was found to be 0.1 Meq/kg and 0.1 Meq/kg, respectively. The saturated fatty acid content of blended oil I and II were found to be 26.67±2.08 and 16.67±2.08, respectively, whereas the monounsaturated fatty acid content of both blended oil I and II was reported to be 28.67±2.08. The polyunsaturated fatty acid content of blended oil I and II were observed to be 39.67±2.08 and 39.33±2.08, respectively. Thus the formulated blended oil with the combination of different types of oil was suggested to be superior compared to common cooking oil like sunflower and safflower oil.

Antioxidant, antimicrobial and some chemical composition of Plagiochila asplenioides (L.) Dumort extract

Bryophytes are the oldest terrestrial plants in the world, about 3000 taxon are known to have medicinal properties. Plagiochila asplenioides (L.) Dumort, which is one kind of bryophytes, was examined in this study. The antimicrobial, antioxidant, fatty acids, mineral analysis and some chemical properties of the extracts obtained from the bryophyte were investigated. It was determined that the P. asplenioides extract had a moderate effect in terms of antioxidant properties and total phenolic content. In terms of fatty acid compositions, oleic and palmitic acid were found to be high. As a result of the mineral analysis, it has been observed that it can accumulate high levels of potassium (K), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al). In addition, it was observed that the extracts obtained from P. asplenioides showed only a moderate inhibitory effect against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium.

Homologous Overexpression of Acyl-CoA Thioesterase 8 Enhanced Free Fatty Acid Accumulation in Oleaginous Fungus Mucor circinelloides WJ11

Thioesterases play an essential role in the metabolism of fatty acids since they are considered one of the key enzymes to change the total amount and composition of fatty acid in an organism’s cells. Acyl-coenzyme A thioesterase 8 (ACOT8) exhibits substrate specificity mainly for short- to long-chain acyl-CoA. To identify and characterize the ACOT8 enzyme’s superfamily in Mucor circinelloides, three genes were characterized and homologously expressed in M. circinelloides WJ11 which has been used as a model organism to investigate the mechanism of lipid accumulation. Multiple sequence alignment showed that McACOT8s had significant conserved motifs in the ACOT8 family. Experimental data indicated that the biomass of the three recombinant strains (McACOT8a, McACOT8b and McACOT8c) was slightly lower than that of the control strain Mc2075, but the total fatty acid (TFA) content was significantly increased by 30.3, 21.5 and 23.9%, respectively, and the free fatty acid production increased from 12.9% (control strain) to 19.2, 25.2 and 26.2% (recombinant types), respectively, with a maximum increase of 103.1% in McACOT8c. The three strains did not show any significant improvement in fatty acid composition compared to the control strain. However, in terms of fatty acid composition of free fatty acid, McACOT8b and McACOT8c contained γ-linolenic acid (C18:3), which was not detected in the control strain or in McACOT8a, indicating that ACOT8b and ACOT8c had substrate specificity for C18:3. These results displayed that ACOT8 can increase TFA accumulation and that it may be an important target of genetic manipulation for microbial oil production.

Turkey meat semi-finished products enriched with flax and flaxseed oil for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases of the population of the Smolensk region

The article provides information about the impact of nutrition on human health and the formation of nutritional diseases. Irrational nutrition is typical for the population of Russia, in particular of the Smolensk region. The article provides an overview of the functional properties of flax seeds and linseed oil in terms of fatty acid composition and functional properties. The data of studies on the determination of fatty acid composition in samples enriched with flax seeds, flaxseed oil compared to the control sample (initial minced turkey breast meat) are presented. The introduction of functional ingredients improved the fatty acid composition and increased the efficiency of enriched semi-finished products. The positive effect of oilseed flax and flaxseed oil on the organoleptic characteristics of the developed chopped semi-finished products was noted. Improving the Omega-3: Omega-6 ratio in the developed semi-finished products allows to consider enriched semi-finished products as a functional food product.

Factors affecting nutritional quality in terms of the fatty acid composition of Cyprinion macrostomus

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of different factors (season, gender, location, total lipid, weight and length) on the fatty acid composition and nutritional quality of Cyprinion macrostomus. The results were evaluated through PERMANOVA, principal coordinates (PCO), and cluster analysis for similarity ranges. An analysis of similarity (ANOSIM) was performed on the distance matrix using multiple permutations within a significant fixed effect (p &lt; 0.05). C18:1ω9, EPA and DHA were the most important fatty acids which had an effect on the nutritional quality in all the factor groups. Total lipid amount, season and length factors were the most influential on the fatty acid compositions of C. macrostomus. Summer and Spring were the best the periods for the good nutritional quality of C. macrostomus in terms of AI (Atherogenicity index), TI (Thrombogenicity index) and h/H (Σhypocholesterolemic/Σhypercholesterolemic fatty acid index). In addition, station, gender and weight had no effect on nutritional quality. The study indicated that C. macrostomus is a potential fish meat for human nutrition with high nutritional value in terms of fatty acid composition.

Characterization of fab2 T-DNA insertion mutants in terms of fatty acid composition and plant phenotype

ABSTRACT Fatty acid biosynthesis 2 (FAB2) is an essential enzyme responsible for the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in chloroplast membrane lipids found in leaves and triacylglycerols (TAG) in seeds. FAB2 functions at the junction of saturated to unsaturated fatty acid conversion in chloroplasts by converting 18:0-ACP to 18:1-ACP. In the present study, plant growth and seed phenotypes were examined in three Arabidopsis T-DNA mutants (fab2–1, fab2–2, and fab2–3). The three fab2 T-DNA mutants exhibited increased 18:0 fatty acid content in both the leaves and seeds. The degree of growth inhibition of the fab2 mutant was proportional to the increase in 18:0 and decrease in 18:3 fatty acids present in the leaves. The FAB2 mutation affected seed yield but not the seed phenotype. This result indicates that FAB2 affects the fatty acid composition of the leaf chloroplast membrane more than seed TAG. In summary, the characteristics of these three fab2 mutants provide information for studying leaf membrane lipid and seed oil biosynthesis.

Effects of BLG polymorphism and dietary supplementation with carob pulp on ewe milk traits and fatty acid composition

The current study examined the effect on milk traits and composition of the replacement of barley grain with carob pulp as a supplement for grazing ewes with different genotypes at the β-lactoglobulin (BLG) locus. Forty-six Valle del Belìce lactating ewes were chosen for the feeding trial and split into control and carob groups based on the BLG p.Tyr38His polymorphism. The carob group received a supplement of 250 g/d of carob pulp, whereas the control group received 250 g/g of a barley whole grain-based concentrate. There were no milk yield or gross composition variations related to the BLG genotype. Nevertheless, milk fatty acid composition was influenced by the BLG polymorphism. Compared to the AB genotype, milk from BB sheep had higher concentrations of linoleic, linolenic acids, and total polyunsaturated fatty acids. The addition of carob pulp did not significantly modify fat and protein-corrected milk, whereas reduced protein and urea concentration, increased the fat content but worsened the milk quality in terms of fatty acid composition, increasing saturated and medium chain fatty acids. The genotype × feed interaction had no appreciable effect on milk composition or quality. HIGHLIGHTS Diet, genotype, and their interaction affect the milk traits and quality. Carob pulp reduced protein, urea and worsened fat quality. The genotype positively influenced the milk fat quality.

Quality comparison of camellia (Camellia oleifera C.Abel) seed oil with different extraction methods

The quality of camellia seed oil (CSO) varies with the oil extraction methods. In the present work, the oil yield, physicochemical properties, bioactive compounds, fatty acid composition, and Fourier transform infrared spectra of CSOs prepared by supercritical fluid, aqueous, pressing, and solvent extraction were explored systematically. Additionally, the microstructure of camellia seed cake after oil extraction was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Results showed that supercritical fluid extraction had the highest oil yield (92.42%), and the extracted oil was also superior to the other methods in the contents of polyphenol, β-sitosterol, and squalene, which were 89.34, 3173.23, and 6.20 mg/kg, respectively. Moreover, CSO extracted by supercritical fluid extraction had lower peroxide value and better colour indexes. In terms of fatty acid composition, CSOs extracted by supercritical fluid, pressing, and solvent extraction were similar, while CSO extracted by aqueous extraction had higher saturated fatty acid contents and lower unsaturated fatty acid contents than the other samples. Fourier transform infrared spectra analysis showed that the extraction methods had no significant effect on the chemical functional groups of CSOs. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that supercritical fluid extraction and solvent extraction could more effectively promote the release of oil from camellia seeds. In general, the quality of CSOs extracted by different methods had significant differences, and supercritical fluid extraction could be a promising extraction method for CSO.

The Effects of Different LED Lights on the Main Nutritional Compositions of Isochrysis zhanjiangensis

Light irradiation plays an important role in the growth of microalgae and their nutrient composition. To elucidate the effect of different LED lights (red, orange, green, blue, purple, simulated sunlight, and white) on the main nutritional compositions of Isochrysis zhanjiangensis, the growth, fatty acid composition, soluble carbohydrate, and soluble protein contents were studied. The results show that I. zhanjiangensis grew the fastest under blue light (p = 0.044). In terms of fatty acid composition, the percentage of myristic acid (C14:0) decreased significantly (p = 0.021) under blue light and simulated sunlight, but the percentages of palmitic acid (C16:0) (p = 0.032) and stearic acid (C18:0) (p = 0.037) significantly increased. The percentage of docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3) increased under orange light (p = 0.021), and the percentage of total unsaturated fatty acids increased under blue light (p = 0.008). The protein content significantly increased under simulated sunlight (p = 0.025), while the carbohydrate content did not vary much (p &gt; 0.05) under different lights. These findings provide useful guidance for optimizing the cultivation conditions of I. zhanjiangensis to improve its nutritional value and yield.

Ethoxidol as a Broad-spectrum Adaptogen.

Stress factors lead to a shift in the antioxidant-prooxidant relationship, allowing an increase in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by mitochondria, which results in the development of oxidative stress. Consequently, it is possible to put forward an assumption that drugs which reduce the excessive generation of ROS by these organelles should increase the body's resistance to stress factors. Antioxidants can be used as such drugs. In this regard, the aim of this work was to study the bioenergetics characteristic of mitochondria under stress conditions and under the action of 2-ethyl-6-methyl-3-hydroxypyridinium hydroxybutanedioate (ethoxidol). The antiradical activity of the drug was evaluated by the chemiluminescent method (CL). The functional state of the mitochondria was studied with reference to the level of lipid peroxidation by the spectrofluorimetry and in terms of fatty acid composition of mitochondrial membranes using the chromatography technique. The study of mitochondrial morphology was performed employing the method of atomic force microscopy. The injection in mice of ethoxidol at a dose of 10-5 mol/kg for 7 days led to the prevention of the stress-induced increase in the intensity of LPO in the membranes of the mitochondria, and swelling of these organelles; it also prevented a decrease in the content of unsaturated fatty acids, containing 18 and 20 carbon atoms. At the same time, ethoxidol increased the life expectancy of mice by 3.0-4.2 times in conditions of various types of hypoxia. The adaptogenic properties of ethoxidol can be attributed to its antiradical and antioxidant properties.

Chemical composition of horse hooves with functional qualities for competing barefoot.

Barefoot racing is a common practice within the harness racing industry, but not all horses have hooves of sufficient quality to race sustainably without shoes. There is currently no objective approach available to assess whether a horse's hooves are suitable for barefoot racing, raising animal welfare issues if trainers misjudge the functional qualities of hooves. This study compared chemical composition of the hoof wall and fatty acid composition of the digital cushion in a group of horses that had raced barefoot often (RB) and a group of horses that could not race barefoot and therefore raced with shoes (RS). Trimmings from the hind hoof wall were collected from the lateral quarters in one sub-cohort post-mortem and in another sub-cohort of live horses and analysed for macro- and microelements, nitrogen, dry matter (DM), total and free amino acid content. For the post-mortem horses, samples of the digital cushion were also collected and analysed for total and free fatty acids. RB horses had lower concentrations of copper in the hoof wall (17.5 ± 3.9 vs 32.8 ± 4.7mg/kg DM, P=0.02) than RS horses. RB horses also tended (P<0.1) to have higher concentrations of nitrogen (164.2 ± 0.2 vs 163.5 ± 0.3g/kg DM) and sulphur (22.9 ± 0.2 vs 22.3 ± 0.3g/kg DM). RB horses had higher hoof wall concentrations of arginine (10.51 ± 0.05 vs 10.34 ± 0.06g/100g DM, P=0.03) and showed a trend (P<0.1) for higher hoof wall concentrations of cysteine (6.14 ± 0.10 vs 5.82 ± 0.13g/100g DM) and proline (4.62 ± 0.05 vs 4.49 ± 0.06g/100g DM). There were no differences between the groups for any other element or amino acid analysed. There were also no differences between the two groups in terms of fatty acid composition of the digital cushion. These results indicate that chemical composition, especially with respect to copper, arginine, nitrogen, sulphur, cysteine and proline, may be important for the functional qualities of the hoof capsule and the ability to race barefoot without wearing the hoof down. However, chemical analysis of hoof wall tissue and of the fat content of the digital cushion does not seem to be a definitive method for distinguishing horses that have hooves suitable for barefoot racing from those that do not.

Characterization of Oil from Bran of Rice Varieties Grown in Ebonyi State

The present work evaluated some physicochemical properties of oil extracted from the bran of three rice varieties: Nwangeilla, Adanaama, and CP, grown across Ebonyi State, southeast Nigeria. Oil was isolated from rice bran using solvent extraction, and analyzed for peroxide, saponification, iodine, and free fatty acid (FFA) values; smoke, flash, and fire points; oil yield; density; and fatty acid profile, using standard methods. Results revealed that CP rice bran oil recorded the highest FFA (2.83%) and peroxide (3.57 meq/kg) values. The highest oil yield (13.45%) was recorded for Adanaama oil while the highest smoke (257oC), flash (280oC) and fire (310oC) points were recorded for Nwangeilla oil. The smoke point, fire point, FFA and peroxide values of Nwangeilla oil were similar to those of Adanaama oil. Saponification and iodine values ranged from 185-188 mgKOH/g and 98-107g l2/100g respectively and were within Codex Standard for rice bran oil. In terms of fatty acid composition, Nwangeilla oil had the highest level of saturated fatty acids (27.37%) while CP and Adanaama had the highest and similar amounts of MUFA (42.52 and 42.31% respectively) and PUFA (33.17 and 33.31% respectively). In all three-rice bran oil studied, oleic acid was the predominant fatty acid, ranging from 39–41%; followed by linoleic acid (30–31%), and lastly by palmitic acid (21%). Linolenic acid (C18:3) was also identified in all samples and ranged from 1.23–2.08% with CP oil recording the highest C18:3 value, and Nwangeilla oil the lowest. Findings of this work point to the untapped opportunities within Nigeria’s rice bran oil sector.

Determination of the quality and purity characteristics of olive oils obtained from different regions of Turkey, depending on climatic changes

AbstractVirgin olive oils (VOOs) obtained from olives grown in different regions of Turkey under changing climatic conditions sometimes show different sensory and chemical properties. This study was planned to determine whether these deviations are due to climatic changes or not. For this purpose, five different olive varieties (Ayvalık, Memecik, Gemlik, Nizip Yağlık, Kilis Yağlık) of commercial importance were harvested from the provinces/districts (four different region) where cultivation is intense during the 2017/2018–2020/2021 harvest years. Every year, olive samples were collected from 3 orchards from 13 provinces/districts. One hundred and fifty‐six samples were subjected to the purity, quality and sensory analysis. Basic climatic values (average, minimum and maximum temperature, humidity and precipitation) were examined for four consecutive years. All of the examined olive oil samples were determined within the legal limits in terms of fatty acid composition and fatty acid ethyl ester values. However, delta‐7‐stigmastenol value from the sterol composition was found to be above 0.5% in some samples in all the years studied (total 21 samples). Delta‐7‐stigmastenol values of olive oil samples varied between 0.16% and 1.14%. Multiple linear regression analysis was applied using a genetic algorithm‐based inverse least squares method to determine whether there is a relationship between climate data and delta‐7‐stigmastenol values. According to this result, it has been determined that the delta‐7‐stigmastenol value is high when the annual average relative humidity is low and the annual average temperature is high. There is an urgent need to make forward‐looking plans due to climate change.

Valorization Potential of Oil Industry By-Products as Sources of Essential Fatty Acids

The oil industry generates a high number of by-products which have the potential to be used in food formulation after they are properly treated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the nutritional potential of 14 different vegetable by-products from the oil industry (flour, meals, and groats) in terms of fatty acid composition and to investigate the effect of theoretical fortification of the bakery products with by-products high in ω-3. Results showed that some of the analyzed samples contain significant amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Organic walnut flour and grape seed flour had a linoleic acid content higher than 60%. By-products obtained from thistle and sesame had a linoleic acid content ranging between 47.32% and 54.72%. Higher linolenic content was obtained for hemp flour (33.22%), red grape seeds meals (33.62%), and golden flax meals (64.65%). By theoretical fortification of wheat and wholemeal flours with high ω-3 by-products in a proportion of 5, 10, and 15%, the ω-3 content increased (2.2- to 22-fold higher) while the ω-6/ω-3 ratio decreased from 5.22 to 0.52–2.86 for wheat flour, and from 16.80 to 0.81–5.53 for wholemeal flour. These vegetable by-products from the oil industry could represent valuable sources of essential fatty acids for the food application, representing valuable ingredients that could be added for the production of functional foods.

Steroidogenic and innate immune responses in Atlantic salmon are influenced by dietary total lipid, long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and dissolved oxygen

Recent studies have found that feeding high levels of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) influenced the steroid biosynthesis pathway of Atlantic salmon on a transcriptomic level, although research observed on a metabolic level is lacking. Dietary lipid and chronic stress have also been suggested to play a role in steroidogenesis. A study was performed on Atlantic salmon post-smolts (184 g) fed with diets of high and low levels of lipid with and without high levels of LC-PUFA under hypoxic (stressed) or normoxic (unstressed) conditions. Liver, head kidney and blood samples were collected after 35 and 116 days to determine short- and long-term effects. On day 35, dissolved oxygen affected the levels of the steroid hormones 11-deoxycortisol, cortisone and testosterone as well as the relative expression of cyp11a involved in steroidogenesis and ud2a2 involved in sex steroid metabolism. On day 116, an interaction between lipid x LC-PUFA x oxygen was found for cyp11a, hsd3b (steroidogenesis) and ud2a2 genes, whereas LC-PUFA and/or oxygen affected the steroid levels of 11-dehydrocorticosterone, corticosterone, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, pregnenolone and testosterone. The observation that both LC-PUFA and oxygen affected cyp11a expression and the levels of pregnenolone, provides evidence for the influence of both parameters on the rate-limiting point of steroid production, which can take >35 days to establish. The 3-way interaction between lipid, LC-PUFA and dissolved oxygen on the expression of steroid genes suggests that the chronic stressor of hypoxia may be over-riding dietary influences of the lipid and LC-PUFA, though the relative proportion of LC-PUFA within the lipid may play a role as well. In terms of fatty acid composition, low dietary lipid and high LC-PUFA increased the levels of total n-6 and n-3 PUFA in the liver, particularly EPA and DHA, and the head kidney to a lesser extent. In terms of immune pathways, hypoxia influenced cytokine gene expression (tgfb, il10), cellular repair gene expression (gr, hsp70 and hsp90) and eicosanoid levels (PGE2 and LTB5) in the head kidney, while dietary lipid and LC-PUFA influenced cytokines (ifnγ and il1β) and eicosanoids (PGE2 and LTB5). These findings demonstrate that feeding different levels of LC-PUFA significantly alters steroidogenesis and innate immune response in Atlantic salmon post-smolts with additional interactions from dietary lipid and hypoxia stress. These results will significantly impact the aquaculture industry since it demonstrates salmon fed high levels of LC-PUFA are likely more resilient to cope with chronic stressors (e.g. prolonged hypoxia) due to lower corticosteroid levels and upregulated immune response.

High dietary protein, n − 3/ n − 6 ratio and β ‐carotene enhances Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816) larval development

The nutritional characteristics of microalgae affect the growth, survival and fatty acid composition of sea urchin larvae. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of nutritive characteristics of single microalgal diets in Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816) larval development, growth, and condition. Larvae of P. lividus were fed with three monospecific microalgal diets, Rhodomonas sp. (Rho), Dunaliella tertiolecta (Duna) and the diatom Chaetoceros calcitrans (Chae), and their development and growth were analysed until competence. Additionally, the fatty acid (FA) profile of larvae was analysed at competence and compared with the FA profile of the correspondent diet. The three groups of larvae attained competence simultaneously with differences in growth performance. The larvae fed with Chae attained the largest stomach and the shortest post-oral arm. The larvae were able to accumulate long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as docosahexaenoic (DHA, C22:6n − 3), eicosapentaenoic (EPA, C20:5n − 3) and arachidonic (ARA, C20:4n − 6) acids, either by assimilation and retention of dietary FA or by the synthesis from α-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3n − 3) and linoleic acid (LA, C18:2n − 6). Furthermore, the low DHA/EPA ratio and high EPA/ARA and n − 3/n − 6 ratios of Rho and Chae and the high levels of the β-carotene present in Chae improved larval growth and development. In conclusion, the results indicated that of the three microalgal diets tested, C. calcitrans provided important nutritional characteristics, especially in terms of FA composition and carotenoids, improving P. lividus larval growth and condition.