Termite Species Richness Research Articles

Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and termites (Blattodea: Termitoidae) in the diet of wild white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) in forest-savanna habitats of Cameroon.

The white-bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis (Rafinesque 1821) is a semiarboreal species occurring in tropical sub-Saharan Africa. It is the world's most trafficked African pangolin species based on volumes recorded in seizures. Reintroduction of confiscated live pangolins and ex-situ rearing are being explored worldwide as a conservation action. However, the husbandry of seized animals is challenging as the diet of the white-bellied pangolin is poorly known and little studied. We analyzed the stomach contents of dead white-bellied pangolins from two forest-savanna protected areas. Stomach content samples from 13 white-bellied pangolin specimens contained ~165,000 Arthropoda, mostly Hymenoptera (60.34%) and Blattodea (39.66%). Overall, we identified 39 termite and 105 ant species consumed as prey by pangolins. Individual pangolins examined had fed on a maximum of 31 ant species and 13 termite species. The termite and ant species richness varied significantly across the pangolins'last consumed meal. We recorded 24 ant genera dominated by Crematogaster (relative importance [RI] = 17.28). Out of 18 termite genera recorded, the genus Pseudacanthotermes (RI = 17.21) was the most important prey. Ten ant species were preferentially eaten by white-bellied pangolin, with Crematogaster acis being the most common prey species. Four species of termite were most frequently eaten with Pseudacanthotermes militaris being the most abundant. The mean abundance of ants and termites varied among pangolin individuals. The season did not influence the mean abundance of termites eaten by pangolin individuals. However, ant abundance in stomach contents was significantly higher in the dry season. An improved understanding of pangolin feeding behavior and prey selection may help inform conservation husbandry efforts. For example, nutritional analysis of the food eaten by wild pangolins can guide the development of nutritional diets for captive pangolins.

Diversity patterns of ants and termites in forest‐savanna mosaic habitats in two protected areas of Cameroon

AbstractKnowledge of ant and termite distribution and ecology is limited for transitional ecosystems in Central Africa. As ants and termites are the primary food for several insectivorous mammals, conservation strategies of threatened species can be strengthened with information on their key food resources. We investigated the ant and termite diversity of two protected areas located in a forest‐savanna transition zone in central Cameroon: Mpem et Djim National Park (MDNP) and Deng‐Deng National Park (DDNP). Ants and termites were collected along 100 line transects using pitfall and bait traps and hand‐sampling during major dry and rainy seasons in seven habitat types. Overall, 14,093 ant individuals representing 108 species, 29 genera, and six subfamilies were recorded. Myrmicinae was the most speciose subfamily in DDNP, while Formicinae dominated in MDNP. The most speciose genus was Crematogaster in both parks. Tapinoma melanocephalum and Pheidole sp. 3 were the most common species recorded in MDNP and DDNP respectively. Ant species richness was highest in near primary forest in DDNP, while richness was greater in the secondary forest of MDNP. Ant communities were more diversified in DDNP than in MDNP. In MDNP, the ant species richness and diversity were highest in the secondary forest and lowest in saltworks, while DDNP near primary forest species richness was highest and swamps lowest. A total of 89 species of termite representing 33 genera and nine subfamilies were recorded from a sample of 56,798 individuals. Termite species richness was similar at DDNP and MDNP. Macrotermitinae was the most common subfamily in both protected areas. The most species‐rich termite genus was Isognathotermes in both parks. Macrotermes amplus in DDNP and Reticulitermes sp. in MDNP respectively, were the most commonly sampled termite species. Near primary forest yielded more termite species in DDNP and MDNP than in other habitat types. Termites and ants' communities were more species‐rich and diversified in relatively closed‐canopy and low‐disturbed forest habitats than in savanna and flooded habitats.

Understanding global and regional patterns of termite diversity and regional functional traits.

Our understanding of broad-scale biodiversity and functional trait patterns is largely based on plants, and relatively little information is available on soil arthropods. Here, we investigated the distribution of termite diversity globally and morphological traits and diversity across China. Our analyses showed increasing termite species richness with decreasing latitude at both the globally, and within-China. In addition, we detected obvious latitudinal trends in the mean community value of termite morphological traits on average, with body size and leg length decreasing with increasing latitude. Furthermore, temperature, NDVI and water variables were the most important drivers controlling the variation in termite richness, and temperature and soil properties were key drivers of the geographic distribution of termite morphological traits. Our global termite richness map is one of the first high resolution maps for any arthropod group and especially given the functional importance of termites, our work provides a useful baseline for further ecological analysis.

Differential effects of vegetation and climate on termite diversity and damage

Abstract Species diversity shapes ecosystem services. Despite the advantages that this relationship has for pest management, few studies have investigated the links between infrastructure damage (i.e. the percentage amount of infrastructures infested by termites), species richness and the environment. Moreover, it is not clear that which proportion of species richness (total/functional‐dominant/common/rare) contributes most to infrastructure damage. We correlated termite species richness with termite infestation throughout 83 cities in Zhejiang Province, eastern China. Species were classified according to whether or not they fed on wood, and based upon their distributional range, whether they were common or rare. We analysed the relative importance and the direct/indirect effects of climate, vegetation, anthropogenic activities, and the species richness of four functional categories of termites on the damage levels of eight infrastructure types in populated (i.e. urban and rural building, green space and sea wall) and remote areas (i.e. ancient building, large‐old tree, agroforest and reservoir dam). Common species favoured populated areas, whereas rare species favoured remote areas. Common species, with preferences for deciduous vegetation, caused more damage to the infrastructures of populated areas. Rare species, with preferences for evergreen vegetation, caused more damage in remote areas. Reforestation project which emphasized evergreen trees increased the number of rare species but reduced the number of common species. Elevation and drought risk were positively correlated with rare species richness but neutrally with common species richness. Structural equation models showed that vegetation predominantly influenced infrastructure damage in populated areas via altering common species richness, whereas climate predominantly and directly influenced infrastructure damage in remote areas. Notably, elevation and drought risk were positively correlated with infrastructure damage especially in remote areas. Synthesis and applications. Termites cause global economic losses of 15–40 billion dollars per year. Our study reveals that managing city forests and green space, for example increasing the proportion of evergreen trees, is a sustainable means of suppressing common termites and thereby reducing infrastructure damage in populated areas. Conservation strategies, supported by regular inspections, will become increasingly important as climate change not only threatens the survival of less harmful rare species, but also increases infrastructure damage in remote areas.

Influência da altitude e sazonalidade na riqueza de espécies e densidade de ninhos de cupins em um ambiente de serra da Caatinga Brasileira

ABSTRACT The variation in altitude drives the richness and density of species in tropical ecosystems. The diversity and richness of termites are influenced by the variations in temperature, humidity, and soil properties according to altitude elevation. This is well known for rainy forests and little information is found for semiarid areas of Brazil. In this study, we aimed to identify species richness and encounters density of termites in a hill inserted in the Caatinga Brazilian forest. We found variation in the composition of species as a function of altitude (in a comparison of top and foot of the hill) and in periods of the wet and dry, with an increase in the season wet. The increase the diversity in this period and altitude elevations can be explained by the increases in humidity after rainfalls and maintenance of temperature enabled by the conditions in the hill’s top. Our findings provide valuable information regarding termite diversity in semiarid areas as a function of elevation and contribute to other studies that are expanding our understanding of how elevation can affect these organisms.

Impact of Human Activities on the Distribution of Termite Communities in Teak Plantations (Tectona grandis L. F., Verbenaceae) in the Korhogo Communal Area (North Côte d'Ivoire)

Aims: This study aimed to assess the impact of human activities on termites in teak plantations in the Korhogo communal area.
 Methodology: Termites were sampled from October to November 2020 using the transect method recommended by Jones and Eggleton (2000). The study was carried out in three teak plantations undergoing different levels of human activities, with a forest fragment as reference area. Five types of human activity were assessed and the overall proportion of human pressure on each habitat was calculated. The species richness (S), Shannon index (H'), Evenness (E) and the relative abundance were calculated of termites for each habitat type. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were used to compare the species richness and abundance of termites.
 Results: The results showed that the village plantation of teak (PVT) had the highest degree of human pressure (50.94%), followed by the teak plantation of the forest of Mount Korhogo (TFMK) (29.24%). The teak plantation of Botanical Garden (TJB) was under low pressure (6.60%). A total of 30 species grouped in 19 genera and 8 sub-families of termites were identified in all plots. Termite diversity was high in the forest fragment (19.67 ± 1.15) and in the teak plantation of Botanical Garden (21.33 ± 2.08), but low in the village teak plantation (11 ± 1). The abundance of termites evolves in the same direction as the species richness.
 Conclusion: Anthropogenic activities affect the trophic composition of termites, particularly the humivore group. Reconstruction of the fauna and flora of the teak forests would be beneficial for the conservation of termite species. In this region, teak forests would thus play a role as a refuge for termite communities, which are recognised as the main soil fertilising organisms in the tropics.

Response of termite communities to natural forest conversion

Abstract. Heriza S, Buchori D, Harahap IS, Maryana N. 2021. Response of termite communities to natural forest conversion. Biodiversitas 22: 5092-5096. Natural forest conversion can affect termite communities resulting from the various types of land use conversion. This study aims to examine the impacts of natural forest conversion on termite communities based on species richness, feeding groups, and termite species composition. Four land use types were evaluated on a gradient from the least to the most disturbing: natural forest, plantation forest, oil palm plantations and settlements. The method used to observe termites in this study is a plot measured 50 m x 10 m and was divided into sub-plots of 5 m x 5 m. The termites were collected from leaf litter and soil, dead wood, trunks, and nests. The response of the termite community to the conversion of natural forest functions into other forms of land use types, where for termite species richness, there was no significant differences between land uses, but for abundance and based on feeding groups there were difference between them.

Can Rubber Crop Systems Recover Termite Diversity in Previously Degraded Pastures in the Colombian Amazon Region?

Livestock production extension in Amazon has caused deforestation and soil degradation, with negative consequences on diversity and environmental services. Recently, rubber crops have been established in deteriorated soils of the Colombian Amazon as an option to restore hectares of unproductive degraded pastures. Bioindicator insects, such as termites, have been used to assess soil quality and fertility restoration. This study evaluated differences in termite abundance, species richness, and community composition in three different rubber crop systems as an indirect way of evaluating soil diversity restoring. Three rubber crop systems were sampled: clonal fields (rubber monocultures with different rubber clones), traditional commercial rubber plantations (rubber monocultures with just one rubber clone), and mixed plantations (rubber fields intercropped with copoazú fruit trees). Additionally, pastures in use for livestock production and natural forest relicts were compared to rubber crop systems, to serve as reference habitats. Termites were sampled using a 105-m transect method. Alpha diversity and beta diversity were estimated and compared between rubber crops and reference habitats. A total of 80 termite species belonging to two families were collected. Mixed plantations and pastures presented the lowest diversity rates. Species richness in rubber crop systems was 39% higher than that in pastures and included 72% of the termite species found in natural forests. Indicator species analysis associated soil-feeding termites with less diverse habitats and wood-feeding termites with high diverse habitats. Our results demonstrate that termite recovery will depend on the farming system selected and the agricultural practices implemented in the field, with some rubber crop systems, like commercial rubber plantations and clonal fields, recovering termite diversity better than others, such as mixed plantations.

The coupling effects of pyrodiversity and land use on termite assemblages in semi-arid savanna

Despite the importance of termites in the structure and function of savanna ecosystems, long-term studies that examine the effects of several disturbance factors on termite communities are limited constraining our understanding of determinants of termite assemblages in savanna. We determined termite assemblages in six random plots (100 m × 2 m) each established on no fire, low fire, and moderate fire frequency sites in a communal area and a commercial cattle-wildlife ranch in a semi-arid savanna, southwest Zimbabwe. Environmental variables i.e., soil and plant variables were also determined in the termite sampling sites. Relationships of land use, fire, and their interaction to (i) termite assemblage and (ii) soil and plant variables were tested using a general linear model (GLM). Relationships between termite assemblages and soil and plant variables were explored using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). Nineteen termite species from three sub-families were present, dominated by Macrotermitinae. Termite species richness and abundance were greater by a factor of up to 2.8 in the ranch than in the communal area. Termite abundance and species richness only differed with fire frequency in the ranch, being greater at low fire frequency than at moderate fire frequency or no fire. Although some relationships were observed between the environmental variables and the composition of termite assemblages, the lack of differences in environmental variables between land uses and fire frequencies suggested that other factors may better explain the patterns in termite assemblages in this savanna.

Selective logging does not alter termite response to soil gradients in Amazonia

AbstractSelective logging has been widely employed as a management practice in tropical forests due to its reduced impact on biodiversity. However, by altering microclimatic conditions, logging could affect soil fauna responsible for nutrient cycling and the long-term dynamic of the forest. We investigated how selective logging affected termite species richness, composition, and the distribution of species in trophic groups, as well as the natural response of termites to gradients of soil conditions. Termites and edaphic variables were sampled in 32 permanent plots in southern Amazonia. Plots were subject to selective logging for 10–31 years before termite sampling. Time post-management was associated with changes in termite species composition, and wood-feeding termites were more abundant in recently logged areas. Nevertheless, most of the variation in termite species richness and composition can be attributed to the natural variation in soil clay content. Moreover, soil-dweller species, a vulnerable group strongly linked to soil decomposition, were present in all plots. These results suggest that the impact of selective logging on termite communities might be milder compared with other types of disturbance. It is likely that the decomposition process performed by termites, and consequently long-term ecosystem functioning, is preserved under selective logging.

Latitudinal gradient of termite diversity indicates higher diversification and narrower thermal niches in the tropics

AbstractAimTo investigate the contributions of ecosystem productivity, temperature‐dependent metabolism and climatic tolerances to the latitudinal gradient in species richness and changes in species composition in tropical and subtropical regions.LocationGlobal.Time periodContemporary.Major taxa studiedTermites.MethodsWe compiled termite occurrence data from papers using the standardized sampling protocol proposed 20 years ago by Jones and Eggleton. Three continents, 28 countries and 494 sampling plots were included in our database. We used structural equation models to determine the direct and indirect effects of productivity, and the average and extreme values of temperature and precipitation on termite species richness. We also compared the observed association between diversity and temperature with predictions from the metabolic theory of ecology and compared how the similarity in species composition relates to geographic distance and environmental differences in tropical versus subtropical regions.ResultsTermite species richness was, directly and indirectly, related to average and extreme temperatures, but not to productivity. However, the association of species richness and temperature was much stronger than predicted by the metabolic theory of ecology. Moreover, species composition changed more rapidly with geographic distance and temperature differences between plots in the tropics than in the subtropics.Main conclusionsThese results suggest that the increase of species richness toward the equator cannot be explained by productivity gradients. Instead, the increase in the speciation rates and the narrow species niches along the temperature gradient in tropical regions likely determine the distribution of termites at broad spatial scales.

Termite diversity in Neotropical dry forests of Colombia and the potential role of rainfall in structuring termite diversity

AbstractTermites are ecosystem engineers that play an important role in the biotransformation and re‐distribution of nutrients in soil. The dry forests are endemic repositories, but at same time, they are most threatened by extensive livestock and crop farming, fires, and climate change. In Colombia, the best‐protected dry forests are located in the north. The termite fauna of dry forests are poorly known. The aim was to identify the termite species occurring in tropical dry forests of the Colombian Caribbean coast in relation to diet and precipitation, temperature, elevation, and soil properties. A total of 32 species in 1,103 occurrences were found. Termitidae accounted for 78% of the species richness with the Anoplotermes‐group, Microcerotermes, and Nasutitermes being the dominant genera. Differences in species composition and abundance were found across sites. These differences may be linked to anthropogenic disturbance and polygyny and polydomy. Strikingly, our highest elevation site (334 m) had the highest species richness much higher than the two lower elevation sites. This implies an inversion of the common elevation‐diversity gradient, also found for termites which can be explained by increasing precipitation with elevation in the dry forest. An analysis of termite species richness at the global scale confirms that termite species richness correlates positively with rainfall. Hence, rainfall seems to positively affect termite diversity. In line, the studied Colombian tropical dry forests had low diversity compared to rain forests. A decline of species‐rich soil‐feeding termites with increasing aridity may explain why the highest termite diversity occurs in humid tropical rain forests.Abstract in Spanish is available with online material.

Consequences of shade management on the taxonomic patterns and functional diversity of termites (Blattodea: Termitidae) in cocoa agroforestry systems.

Termites have gained importance as major pests in cocoa agroforests. Proper identification of termite species and knowledge on their functional diversity are the first steps in developing environmentally compatible management strategies. We tested the hypothesis that patterns of termite species richness in different cocoa agroforests is related to responses by termite functional groups to changes in shade management. We compared termite assemblages under five cocoa agroforestry systems in Cameroon to assess the impact of shade on termite taxonomic and functional group diversity. Sampling was done using a modified standardized transect method. Two 30 × 30 m quadrates each divided into three transects were laid in four farms at each site. Termites sampled were identified and grouped according to habitats, functional groups, and feeding habits. Sixty‐nine termite species in 33 genera and five subfamilies under two families were sampled. Termitidae was the most dominant family and Rhinotermitidae the least dominant with few species. Termite species richness decreased significantly from the heavy shaded cocoa agroforests (44 species) to the full sun (11 species). Functional group pattern differed significantly in all the cocoa agroforests and within each agroforestry system and dominated by wood and litter feeder species. Many species belonging to this group were responsible to most damages on cocoa trees. Both the richness of termite pests and marketable yield followed a quadratic curve and were found to be lowest and highest in plots with shade cover above 40%. The simulated optimal shade levels for low termite infestations and marketable yield overlapped between 45% and 65% indicating that cocoa agroforestry systems with around 55% shade cover may be optimal to balance termite infestations and marketable yield. Shade maintenance in cocoa agroforests is valuable in reducing termite pest species and conserving soil feeding termites which provide beneficial ecosystem services.

Effect of a rubber plantation on termite diversity in Melawi, West Kalimantan, Indonesia

One of the negative effects of rubber plantation expansion is the loss of biodiversity in the area. One of the widely used rubber plantation systems is rubber forest agroforestry, which is known to have little effect on biodiversity. This study compared termite species in rubber forest with those in the primary forest within Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park in Melawi, Indonesia. Two rubber forest sites (newly opened) and unproductive/old rubber forest, were chosen to estimate the long term effects of rubber forest on termite biodiversity. A standardized transect method was used for termite collection. In total, 35 termite species belonging to eight sub families were collected. Termite species richness in the old rubber forest decreased up to 62.5% compared to that in primary forest sites. In the newly opened rubber forest site, termite species richness was only slightly less than that of the primary forest sites. Termite species richness results corresponded with their functional groups, with no soil feeders found in the old rubber forest. Furthermore, the calculation of several diversity indices also confirmed the results. The results indicated that the expansion of rubber forest in the area appears to have adversely affected termite diversity more than expected.

Comparative Termite (Isoptera) Diversity in Three Different Habitats of Shivamogga District, Karnataka, India1

Abstract A comparative study of termite (Isoptera: Termitidae) species diversity and richness in three ecologically different habitats was conducted in the Shivamogga District of Karnataka, India, from September 2014 to August 2015. A standard belt transect method was used to sample the termites in each habitat for the duration of the study. The three habitats studied were rainforest, semimalnad represented by degraded forest area that was previously rainforest, and maidan represented by open field and plantation crops with no tree cover. Twenty-two species were collected, all representing the family Termitidae. Nine species were recorded from the maidan habitat, 14 species from the semimalnad habitat, and 18 species from a rainforest habitat. Of the 18 species recorded from the rainforest, 6 were exclusively recorded there and not in the maidan or the semimalnad habitats. Species richness, as indicated by Shannon's diversity index (H), was highest in the rainforest (1.62), followed by the semimalnad (1.4...

Testing the assumptions of the pyrodiversity begets biodiversity hypothesis for termites in semi-arid Australia.

Fire shapes the composition and functioning of ecosystems globally. In many regions, fire is actively managed to create diverse patch mosaics of fire-ages under the assumption that a diversity of post-fire-age classes will provide a greater variety of habitats, thereby enabling species with differing habitat requirements to coexist, and enhancing species diversity (the pyrodiversity begets biodiversity hypothesis). However, studies provide mixed support for this hypothesis. Here, using termite communities in a semi-arid region of southeast Australia, we test four key assumptions of the pyrodiversity begets biodiversity hypothesis (i) that fire shapes vegetation structure over sufficient time frames to influence species' occurrence, (ii) that animal species are linked to resources that are themselves shaped by fire and that peak at different times since fire, (iii) that species’ probability of occurrence or abundance peaks at varying times since fire and (iv) that providing a diversity of fire-ages increases species diversity at the landscape scale. Termite species and habitat elements were sampled in 100 sites across a range of fire-ages, nested within 20 landscapes chosen to represent a gradient of low to high pyrodiversity. We used regression modelling to explore relationships between termites, habitat and fire. Fire affected two habitat elements (coarse woody debris and the cover of woody vegetation) that were associated with the probability of occurrence of three termite species and overall species richness, thus supporting the first two assumptions of the pyrodiversity hypothesis. However, this did not result in those species or species richness being affected by fire history per se. Consequently, landscapes with a low diversity of fire histories had similar numbers of termite species as landscapes with high pyrodiversity. Our work suggests that encouraging a diversity of fire-ages for enhancing termite species richness in this study region is not necessary.

Intermediate disturbance promotes termite functional diversity in intensively managed Vietnamese coffee agroecosystems

The intensive agricultural practices used in coffee plantations have profound impacts on invertebrate biodiversity. We surveyed termite diversity in the central highlands of Vietnam and evaluated it relative to the in situ ecological conditions of the coffee farms. Two survey sites were established at farms that were in place for 1 month and 1, 3, 5, and 25 years at the time of sampling. In addition, two models were tested: the diversity–resource relationship and the diversity–disturbance relationship. Our results demonstrated that the loss of termite diversity due to land perturbation in newly cultivated coffee farms may be as high as 86% compared with the nearest forested site. Only two feeding groups of termite (Group II and Group III) were present in the study sites. Termite composition of young and old farms was similar, but they only shared 48% similarity and differed significantly from the composition of the 1, 3, and 5 year old coffee farms. Understory vegetation cover and moisture content were positively associated with the occurrence of Group II and III termites but negatively associated with soil bulk density. Termite species richness did not increase linearly with the increased biomass production (plant litter) that is characteristic of old coffee farms. In contrast, termite species richness and occurrence were related to the intensity of farm management. Farms subjected to an intermediate level of management intensity due to annual crop cultivation recorded the highest diversity. Our study highlights the importance of annual crop cultivation to enhance termite diversity.

Termite diversity along a land use intensification gradient in a semi-arid savanna

Disturbance, particularly agricultural expansion is one of the major threats to the biodiversity and ecological functions of tropical and sub-tropical ecosystems. In this regard, we examined changes in the species richness, abundance, and diversity of termites across different disturbance treatments in a sub-tropical semi-arid savanna in south eastern Zimbabwe. Nine transects (100 × 2 m) representing three habitat disturbance treatments (primary woodland; grazing area; agricultural field) were sampled for termites using a rapid biodiversity assessment protocol. Termites were more abundant and species-rich in primary woodland and grazing area than in the agricultural field. Twelve termite species from three sub-families were present, with Microtermes sp. constituting 35% of the identified termite species. Termite feeding group structure differed significantly among land-use types, and of all termites present, wood-feeding termites were the most abundant while soil-feeders were rare in the agricultural field. In conclusion the observed pattern in termite species richness and relative abundance indicates that termites are very resilient to natural disturbance and might actually benefit from some natural disturbances like they did in the grazing area of this study, but they are not resilient to extreme anthropogenic disturbance. Although there was no notable difference in termite species richness and relative abundance between agricultural field and primary woodland, the pattern observed across the three sites may be potential support for the IDH suggesting that intermediate levels of physical disturbance intensity influence the structure and functioning of termite assemblages in semi-arid savanna.

Ant and termite communities in isolated and continuous forest fragments in Singapore

The conservation of tropical rainforest biodiversity is a pressing issue, due to the rapid rate of deforestation. Secondary forests may provide a useful alternative to old growth forests, as they often contain a substantial proportion of the original biodiversity. In this study, we investigate species richness, density and composition of ants and termites in six forest sites in Singapore, each differing in habitat isolation and land-use history. The six sites include an old growth forest, a selectively logged old growth forest, and four secondary forests: either located on abandoned agricultural lands or in abandoned villages, and either isolated or adjacent to old growth forests. We found that the old growth forest had significantly higher species density of ants and termites than any other site. Rarefaction curves showed that ant and termite species richness were highest in the old growth forest followed by the selectively logged forest albeit these results were not significantly different from other sites. Ant species composition changed along a gradient of fragment isolation. Termite community composition in the old growth forest shared a higher proportion of species with the adjacent secondary forest, than with the selectively logged old growth forest, suggesting that the species pool of adjacent habitats is important for species re-colonisation of regenerating habitats. Our results suggest, albeit without replications, that secondary forests differ in conservation value and that disturbed habitats in continuous forest fragments recover more rapidly than isolated ones. Further, we emphasise the importance of old growth forest fragments within man-made ecosystems as sources of original biodiversity.

Contrasting the distribution of butterflies and termites in plantations and tropical forests

In the tropics vast areas of natural forests are being converted into plantations. The magnitude of the resulting loss in arthropod biodiversity and associated ecosystem services represents a significant topic of research. In this study we contrasted the abundance, species richness and faunal turnover of butterflies, resident butterflies (i.e., whose host plants were ascertained to occur in the habitats studied) and termites between small (average 4.3 ha) 20+ year old exotic plantations (teak and Terminalia), native plantations (Cedro espino), and an old growth forest in Panama. We used Pollard walks and manual search to quantify the abundance or occurrence of butterflies and termites, respectively. In 2014 we observed 4610 butterflies representing 266 species and 108 termite encounters (out of 160 quadrats) representing 15 species. Butterflies were more abundant and diverse in plantations than in the forest, whereas this pattern was opposite for resident butterflies and termites. There was marked faunal turnover between plantations and forest. We conclude that (a) the magnitude of faunal changes between forest and plantations is less drastic for termites than for butterflies; (b) resident butterfly species are more impacted by the conversion of forest to plantations than all butterflies, including transient species; and (c) species richness does not necessarily decrease in the series forest > native > exotic plantations. Whereas there are advantages of studying more tractable taxa such as butterflies, the responses of such taxa can be highly unrepresentative of other invertebrate groups responsible for different ecological services.