Termite Communities Research Articles

Variations in Diversity and Richness of Gut Bacterial Communities of Termites (Reticulitermes flavipes) Fed with Grassy and Woody Plant Substrates

Diets shape the animal gut microbiota, although the relationships between diets and the structure of the gut microbial community are not yet well understood. The gut bacterial communities of Reticulitermes flavipes termites fed on four individual plant biomasses with different degrees of recalcitrance to biodegradation were investigated by 16S rRNA pyrosequencing analysis. The termite gut bacterial communities could be differentiated between grassy and woody diets, and among grassy diets (corn stover vs. sorghum). The majority of bacterial taxa were shared across all diets, but each diet significantly enriched some taxa. Interestingly, the diet of corn stover reduced gut bacterial richness and diversity compared to other diets, and this may be related to the lower recalcitrance of this biomass to degradation.

Single-Cell DNA Barcoding Using Sequences from the Small Subunit rRNA and Internal Transcribed Spacer Region Identifies New Species of Trichonympha and Trichomitopsis from the Hindgut of the Termite Zootermopsis angusticollis

To aid in their digestion of wood, lower termites are known to harbour a diverse community of prokaryotes as well as parabasalid and oxymonad protist symbionts. One of the best-studied lower termite gut communities is that of Zootermopsis angusticollis which has been known for almost 100 years to possess 3 species of Trichonympha (T. campanula, T. collaris, and T. sphaerica), 1 species of Trichomitopsis (T. termopsidis), as well as smaller flagellates. We have re-assessed this community by sequencing the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region from a large number of single Trichonympha and Trichomitopsis cells for which morphology was also documented. Based on phylogenetic clustering and sequence divergence, we identify 3 new species: Trichonympha postcylindrica, Trichomitopsis minor, and Trichomitopsis parvus spp. nov. Once identified by sequencing, the morphology of the isolated cells for all 3 new species was re-examined and found to be distinct from the previously described species: Trichonympha postcylindrica can be morphologically distinguished from the other Trichonympha species by an extension on its posterior end, whereas Trichomitopsis minor and T. parvus are smaller than T. termopsidis but similar in size to each other and cannot be distinguished based on morphology using light microscopy. Given that Z. angusticollis has one of the best characterized hindgut communities, the near doubling of the number of the largest and most easily identifiable symbiont species suggests that the diversity of hindgut symbionts is substantially underestimated in other termites as well. Accurate descriptions of the diversity of these microbial communities are essential for understanding hindgut ecology and disentangling the interactions among the symbionts, and molecular barcoding should be a priority for these systems.

Uncovering cryptic species diversity of a termite community in a West African savanna

To uncover the termite species diversity of a natural African savanna ecosystem, we combined morphological analyses and sequencing of three gene fragments (cytochrome oxidase I, cytochrome oxidase II and 28SrDNA, total length about 2450bp) to infer putative species from phylogenetic trees. We identified 18 putative species clusters with high support values and which we retrieved consistently. Samples from two genera (Ancistrotermes and Microcerotermes) were excluded from the mitochondrial phylogenetic analyses as they might represent nuclear mitochondrial sequences (NUMTs). In total, our data suggest a species richness of at least 20 species, all but one belonging to the Termitidae (higher termites), and among them the fungus-growing Macrotermitinae were most prevalent with at least nine putative species. Within the fungus-growers the most species-rich genus was Microtermes and its four putative species were all cryptic species. Their abundance in the samples suggests that they play an important ecological role which is completely unstudied also due to the lack of reliable identification means. Our study shows that morphological traits are unreliable means of species identification for several termite taxa. Yet reliable and consistent identification is necessary for studying the functional role of termites in ecosystem and global processes.

Termites community as environmental bioindicators in highlands: a case study in eastern slopes of Mount Slamet, Central Java

Pribadi T, Raffiudin R, Harahap IS (2011) Termites community as environmental bioindicators in highlands: a case study in eastern slopes of Mount Slamet, Central Java. Biodiversitas 12: 235-240. Termites ecological behavior is much affected by land use change and disturbance level. Their variation in diversity can be used as bioindicator of environmental quality. However, termite community response to land use changes and habitat disturbance in highland ecosystems remains poorly understood. This study was conducted to investigate the response of termite community to land use intensification and to explore their role as environmental bioindicator in Mount Slamet. A standard survey protocol was used to collect termites in five land use types of various disturbance levels, i.e. protected forest, recreation forest, production forest, agroforestry, and urban area. It was found two termite families i.e. Rhinotermitidae andTermitidae with seven species, i.e. Schedorhinotermes javanicus, Procapritermes sp, Pericapritermes semarangi, Macrotermes gilvus, Microtermes insperatus, Nasutitermes javanicus, and N. matangensis. Termite species’ richness and evenness, Shannon-Wiener index, relative abundance, and biomass of termite were declined along with the land use types and disturbance level from protected forest to urban area. Habitat disturbance was the main declining factor of termite diversity. Termite composition changed along with the land usedisturbance level. Soil feeding termites were sensitive to the disturbance – they were not found in urban area. Hence, their presence or absence can be used as environmental bioindicator to detect habitat disturbance.

Anaerobic Carbon Monoxide Dehydrogenase Diversity in the Homoacetogenic Hindgut Microbial Communities of Lower Termites and the Wood Roach

Anaerobic carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) is a key enzyme in the Wood-Ljungdahl (acetyl-CoA) pathway for acetogenesis performed by homoacetogenic bacteria. Acetate generated by gut bacteria via the acetyl-CoA pathway provides considerable nutrition to wood-feeding dictyopteran insects making CODH important to the obligate mutualism occurring between termites and their hindgut microbiota. To investigate CODH diversity in insect gut communities, we developed the first degenerate primers designed to amplify cooS genes, which encode the catalytic (β) subunit of anaerobic CODH enzyme complexes. These primers target over 68 million combinations of potential forward and reverse cooS primer-binding sequences. We used the primers to identify cooS genes in bacterial isolates from the hindgut of a phylogenetically lower termite and to sample cooS diversity present in a variety of insect hindgut microbial communities including those of three phylogenetically-lower termites, Zootermopsis nevadensis, Reticulitermes hesperus, and Incisitermes minor, a wood-feeding cockroach, Cryptocercus punctulatus, and an omnivorous cockroach, Periplaneta americana. In total, we sequenced and analyzed 151 different cooS genes. These genes encode proteins that group within one of three highly divergent CODH phylogenetic clades. Each insect gut community contained CODH variants from all three of these clades. The patterns of CODH diversity in these communities likely reflect differences in enzyme or physiological function, and suggest that a diversity of microbial species participate in homoacetogenesis in these communities.

Beta-Diversity of Termite Assemblages Among Primary French Guiana Rain Forests

Termites are an important component of tropical rain forests, and have been included in many studies focusing on the influence of human disturbance. Their distribution among primary rain forest has, however, rarely been investigated. Here we studied the termite fauna in seven mostly undisturbed forest sites, representing several rain forest types. Overall, approximately 70 percent of species were soil-feeders and 25 percent were wood-feeders, the remaining 5 percent being classified here as litter-feeders. Termite species richness did not differ significantly among sites, but sites differed in termite abundance. The palm swamp and the low forest situated on the foothills of an inselberg, hosted different termite communities to the other sites. These two sites presented a singular physiognomy suggesting that forest type is an important factor influencing species composition. We found no correlation between termite species composition and distance between sites, highlighting that at the scale of our study (about 100km), forest sites share a similar species pool.

Genes for selenium dependent and independent formate dehydrogenase in the gut microbial communities of three lower, wood‐feeding termites and a wood‐feeding roach

The bacterial Wood-Ljungdahl pathway for CO(2)-reductive acetogenesis is important for the nutritional mutualism occurring between wood-feeding insects and their hindgut microbiota. A key step in this pathway is the reduction of CO(2) to formate, catalysed by the enzyme formate dehydrogenase (FDH). Putative selenocysteine- (Sec) and cysteine- (Cys) containing paralogues of hydrogenase-linked FDH (FDH(H)) have been identified in the termite gut acetogenic spirochete, Treponema primitia, but knowledge of their relevance in the termite gut environment remains limited. In this study, we designed degenerate PCR primers for FDH(H) genes (fdhF) and assessed fdhF diversity in insect gut bacterial isolates and the gut microbial communities of termites and cockroaches. The insects examined herein represent three wood-feeding termite families, Termopsidae, Kalotermitidae and Rhinotermitidae (phylogenetically 'lower' termite taxa); the wood-feeding roach family Cryptocercidae (the sister taxon to termites); and the omnivorous roach family Blattidae. Sec and Cys FDH(H) variants were identified in every wood-feeding insect but not the omnivorous roach. Of 68 novel alleles obtained from inventories, 66 affiliated phylogenetically with enzymes from T. primitia. These formed two subclades (37 and 29 phylotypes) almost completely comprised of Sec-containing and Cys-containing enzymes respectively. A gut cDNA inventory showed transcription of both variants in the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis (family Termopsidae). The gene patterns suggest that FDH(H) enzymes are important for the CO(2)-reductive metabolism of uncultured acetogenic treponemes and imply that the availability of selenium, a trace element, shaped microbial gene content in the last common ancestor of dictyopteran, wood-feeding insects, and continues to shape it to this day.

Chlorpyrifos causes decreased organic matter decomposition by suppressing earthworm and termite communities in tropical soil

Effects of pesticides on structural and functional properties of ecosystems are rarely studied under tropical conditions. In this study litterbag and earthworm field tests were performed simultaneously at the same tropical field site sprayed with chlorpyrifos (CPF). The recommended dose of CPF (0.6 kg a.i. ha −1) and two higher doses (4.4–8.8 kg a.i. ha −1) significantly decreased litter decomposition during the first 3 months after application, which could be explained from lower earthworm and termite abundances during this period. Species-specific effects of CPF on organism abundance and biomass were observed, with termites being mostly affected followed by the earthworm Perionyx excavatus; the earthworm Megascolex sp. was least affected. Recovery was completed within 6 months. Decomposition in the controls and lowest two treatments was completed within 4 months, which suggests the need for modification of standard test guidelines to comply with faster litter degradation under tropical conditions.

Termites (Isoptera) in forest ecosystems of Cat Tien National Park (Southern Vietnam)

The species composition and termite community populations were studied and the total land termites biomass was estimated in five forest habitats of Cat Tien National Park, Southern Vietnam. Twenty-four species of two families, Rhinotermitidae (1 species) and Termitidae (23 species), the predominant representatives of the subfamily Macrotermitinae, were found in mounds and in soil samples. On the test plots the density of termite mounds averaged 68 per hectare, primarily the mounds of three Macrotermes species. Destructive sampling allowed estimation of the caste composition and total community biomass based on six termite mounds of the prevailing species (Globitermes sulphureus, Microcerotermes burmanicus, Macrotermes carbonarius, M. gilvus, M. malaccensis, and Hypotermes obscuriceps). The total number of termites in the nests ranged from 65 000 to 3 150 000 individuals with the total biomass ranging from 185 to 2440 g live weight. The total abundance of nesting Macrotermes species alone could conservatively be estimated as 2.5 million individuals and 20.5 kg live weight per hectare. The number of soil- and litter-feeding termites averaged for the test plots was estimated at about 60 ind./m2. Four species dominating on the test plots (M. carbonarius, M. gilvus, M. malaccensis, and H. obscuriceps) belong to active tree litter feeders.

Termite diversity and abundance across fire-induced habitat variability in a tropical moist savanna (Lamto, Central Côte d'Ivoire)

Abstract:At Lamto, little is known about animal community responses to habitat variability resulting from fires and the mosaic pattern of the vegetation in general and in particular about that of termites which play key roles in this ecosystem. With a standardized method, data were collected on termites from four habitats differing in their vegetation cover and fire-history: annually burned savanna, savanna woodland, forest island and gallery forest. A range of environmental variables was measured and correlated with species abundances. The number of termite species collected in the savanna woodland was very close to that found in the gallery forest while the forest island was the richest habitat. The species richness of the savanna woodland and forest island seemed partly due to their heterogeneous and transitional vegetation structures and variable food resources. With regard to the fire-history of habitats, Connell's intermediate disturbance hypothesis offers an explanation for differences in the patterns of habitat-specific species richness. Variation in species abundances was significantly correlated with only two environmental variables (soil pH and woody plant species richness). The pH appeared as the most influential factor for fungus-growers while tree invasion in the savanna strongly reduces the abundance of grass-feeding species (e.g. Trinervitermes geminatus). Although not significantly correlated with species abundances, soil carbon showed a positive correlation with the dominant soil-feeder Basidentitermes potens. As for wood-feeders, they were not strongly correlated with woody plant species richness; this fact might be linked to their use for other sources of nourishment. Overall, it appears that habitat variability in the Lamto reserve contributes to the maintenance of different subsets of the termite community.

Abundance and diversity of termites in a savanna woodland reserve in tropical Australia

AbstractThis study contributes to the paucity of knowledge on the structure of Australian tropical savanna termite assemblages, compared with that available for tropical savannas elsewhere in the world. Termite species diversity, frequency of occurrence and functional diversity in Charles Darwin National Park, a savanna woodland reserve in tropical northern Australia, were assessed. In four 50 × 50 m sites, a direct search and bait sampling protocol was used to sample mounds, standing and lying dead wood, litter, soil and arboreal nest microhabitats for termites between April and June 2003. Results were compared with a priori predictions of termite community structure based on the work by Braithwaite et al. (1988). Sixteen species from nine genera and three families (Mastotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae) were recorded, including the first record of Ephelotermes taylori (Hill) from open savanna woodland habitat and the first official record of Macrognathotermes errator Miller from north Australian savanna. The family Termitidae represented 69% of termite occurrences. From this family, the wood/soil interface feeder Nasutitermes eucalypti (Mjöberg) represented 30% of encounters. High levels of termite activity were recorded at baits within 6 weeks. Four nesting habits were represented: epigeal (mounds above ground), hypogeal (subterranean nests), nests within wood and arboreal nests. Termites were most frequently encountered in epigeal mounds and lying dead wood. Wood and wood/soil interface feeders were the most common. The findings partially supported the a priori predictions proposed. The termite assemblage structure was represented by species commonly found in other Northern Territory savanna woodland habitats. However, species diversity was lower; soil feeders and live wood feeders were less common and grass‐harvesting species were absent. Soil nitrogen and phosphorus and species richness and patchiness of ground vegetation may contribute to these differences. The lower species diversity recorded contrasts with the richer termite faunas of tropical savannas recorded elsewhere.

Relative Abundance and Comparative Breeding Structure of Subterranean Termite Colonies (<I>Reticulitermes flavipes</I>, <I>Reticulitermes hageni</I>, <I>Reticulitermes virginicus</I>, and <I>Coptotermes formosanus</I>) in a South Carolina Lowcountry Site as Revealed by Molecular Markers

There are several species of subterranean termites in the United States, some of which occur sympatrically over broad geographic regions. However, there is little information on the relative abundance of the different species or the extent to which they differ with respect to colony social and spatial organization. We used microsatellite markers to investigate the relative numbers of colonies, to infer colony breeding structures, and to delineate colony foraging areas in four species of subterranean termites occurring in a state park in Charleston, SC. The two most abundant species, Reticulitermes hageni Banks and Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), which together accounted for 80% of the 49 colonies sampled, had fairly localized foraging ranges of 100 linear m. Colonies of all species were primarily simple families each headed by a single monogamous pair of reproductives. Generally, the remaining colonies of each species were consistent with being extended families, i.e., headed by multiple neotenic reproductives descended from simple families. Only in R. flavipes was a mixed family colony detected, with workers from two distinct families occurring together. These results from molecular markers reveal how the various species in a relatively diverse subterranean termite community can vary in abundance, size of colony foraging area and breeding structure, thereby setting the stage for subsequent studies to identify the factors shaping these communities.

Diversity and abundance of termites along an altitudinal gradient in Khao Kitchagoot National Park, Thailand

Termites are dominant invertebrates in tropical soils (Wood & Sands 1978) and are important mediators of decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems (Abe & Matsumoto 1979, Lawton et al. 1996, Lee & Wood 1971, Matsumoto & Abe 1979, Wood & Sands 1978, Yamada et al. 2005). Furthermore, these processes, such as carbon mineralization and nitrogen fixation, are dependent on the species assemblage structure of the termite community (Lawton et al. 1996, Yamada et al. 2005, 2006). Feeding habits of termites reflect their metabolic processes. The three major isopteran groups – wood-feeders, fungus-growers (fungus-growing wood/litter feeders), soil-feeders – appear to play very different roles in the decomposition process (Tayasu et al. 1997, Wood 1976, Wood & Sands 1978, Yamada et al. 2005). Consequently, the relative abundance of each feeding group provides useful information on the function of the termite assemblage in an ecosystem.

Cupins de duas florestas de restinga do nordeste brasileiro

A estrutura da comunidade de cupins foi avaliada em duas florestas de restinga localizadas nos municípios de Mataraca e Cabedelo, Estado da Paraíba. Um protocolo padronizado de amostragem foi aplicado em cada área. Vinte e cinco espécies foram encontradas, sendo 19 em Mataraca e 15 em Cabedelo, com 9 espécies comuns às duas localidades. As espécies de Nasutitermitinae e as do grupo dos comedores de madeira foram dominantes em ambas as áreas. A baixa riqueza de espécies, em comparação com outros ecossistemas do Nordeste, e a baixa freqüência de encontros de humívoros e da subfamília Apicotermitinae podem estar relacionadas com as propriedades do solo das restingas. As espécies construtoras de ninhos conspícuos (todos arborícolas) foram Armitermes holmgreni Snyder, 1926, Microcerotermes exiguus (Hagen, 1858), M. strunckii (Sörensen, 1884), Nasutitermes corniger (Motschulsky, 1855), N. ephratae (Holmgren, 1910), e N. macrocephalus (Silvestri, 1903). A fauna mostrou-se composta por espécies características de outras formações vegetais, principalmente Mata Atlântica e Cerrado, neste caso estando de acordo com o padrão geral de distribuição estabelecido pelas comunidades vegetais e pela fauna de vertebrados estudados em outras restingas brasileiras.

Soil macro-fauna in an Acacia mangium plantation in comparison to that in a primary mixed dipterocarp forest in the lowlands of Sarawak, Malaysia

Summary Sustainable ecosystem management of Acacia mangium plantation, the area of which is rapidly increasing in the tropics, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia, becomes more and more important. In this context, abundance, biomass and vertical distribution of soil macro-invertebrates were investigated in a mature plantation of A. mangium in Sarawak, Malaysia. In the present paper, in order to reveal the changes in soil macro-fauna caused by conversion of natural forests to A. mangium plantations, the results were compared with those from a nearby primary forest. While total abundance of soil macro-invertebrates was similar, total biomass was much larger in the plantation than in the primary forest. The prominent factor for such a large total biomass in the plantation was the high abundance of earthworms, followed by isopods and harvestmen with much smaller contributions. The common feature of the communities of these three taxa in the plantation was the absolute dominance by single species. The dominant earthworm species was of the endogeic type that was absent from the primary forest and thought to be introduced with A. mangium seedlings from outside. The isopod flushed in the plantation was a pill bug that occurred in the primary forest, too, and might have been pre-adapted to the vegetation change. The dominant harvestman in the plantation was of the life form different from that of the other species found, and was thought to be supported by the explosive increase in biomass of earthworm and/or pill bug. On the other hand, communities of termites, ants, fly larvae, click beetle larvae and other beetle larvae were depressed by the vegetation change. Thus the major consequence of the conversion of natural forest to A. mangium plantation was simplification of community structure in many taxonomic groups. The major points of the simplification in turn were the explosive increase in biomass of the soil processing earthworm and the litter processing pill bug which may accelerate the mineralization processes. The need for a careful monitoring on sustainability of soil fertility was concluded.

Ecological role of termites (Insecta, Isoptera) in tree trunks in central Amazonian rain forests

During an experimental silvicultural logging operation in a rain forest area in central Amazonia, 110 trees were cut in an area of about 3 ha. Of these, 37.7±9.9% presented large internal cavities along the central axis of their trunks. Twenty-three trees were infested with termites (21.2±3.5% of the logged and 57.4±9.8% of the hollow trees). Eighteen termite species of 15 genera (families: Termitidae and Rhinotermitidae) were found in the rotten cores; the most common species were Coptotermes testaceus and an unidentified species of this genus (Coptotermes sp. A). Both species together occupied 69.3±18.1% of the trees containing termites. Some otherwise rarely registered termite species (Glossotermes oculatus, Labiotermes leptothrix, Inquilinitermes microcerus) also were found in the rotten cores (I. microcerus for the first time in central Amazonia). We conclude that apparently healthy, live trees in Amazonian rain forests commonly have rotten cores that contain termites, and that termites of the genus Coptotermes are the main occupants of this spatial niche. Therefore, when termite communities are sampled, special attention should be given to the termite assemblages in the central cavities of tree trunks.

Ecological role of termites (Insecta, Isoptera) in tree trunks in central Amazonian rain forests

During an experimental silvicultural logging operation in a rain forest area in central Amazonia, 110 trees were cut in an area of about 3 ha. Of these, 37.7±9.9% presented large internal cavities along the central axis of their trunks. Twenty-three trees were infested with termites (21.2±3.5% of the logged and 57.4±9.8% of the hollow trees). Eighteen termite species of 15 genera (families: Termitidae and Rhinotermitidae) were found in the rotten cores; the most common species were Coptotermes testaceus and an unidentified species of this genus ( Coptotermes sp. A). Both species together occupied 69.3±18.1% of the trees containing termites. Some otherwise rarely registered termite species ( Glossotermes oculatus, Labiotermes leptothrix, Inquilinitermes microcerus) also were found in the rotten cores ( I. microcerus for the first time in central Amazonia). We conclude that apparently healthy, live trees in Amazonian rain forests commonly have rotten cores that contain termites, and that termites of the genus Coptotermes are the main occupants of this spatial niche. Therefore, when termite communities are sampled, special attention should be given to the termite assemblages in the central cavities of tree trunks.

Diverse bacteria related to the bacteroides subgroup of the CFB phylum within the gut symbiotic communities of various termites.

Phylogenetically diverse clones of the partial 16S rDNA (ca. 850 bp) of bacteria belonging to the bacteroides subgroup of the cytophaga-flavobacter-bacteroides phylum were collected from the symbiotic microbial communities in the guts of six termite species without cultivation. Combined with the sequences reported previously, a total of thirty phylotypes of the subgroup were identified and classified into five phylogenetic clusters. One that was comprised of the phylotypes from a single termite species was related to the genus Rikenella. Two were clustered each with some cultured strains, genera of which have not been clearly defined yet. The remaining two clusters had no culturable representatives, suggesting the presence of yet-uncultivated genera within the termite guts. From these sequence data, we designed a specific primer for the bacteroides subgroup, which was successful in the terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis to detect the phylotypes of the subgroup in the termite gut.

Changes in termite (Isoptera) communities due to the clearance and cultivation of tropical forest in Uganda

Changes in termite communities following clearance and cultivation of part of Mabira Forest Reserve were studied. The study sites included natural forest, a cleared but not cultivated site and six sites cultivated for different periods, ranging from 1 to 20 years. A total of 25 species, including Odontotermes amanicus (Sjostedt) and Microtermes luteus (Harris), both not previously identified in Uganda, was recorded in the natural forest. Forest clearance resulted in drastic reduction of the number of species to about 40% of what existed in the natural forest, while cultivation led to further elimination, leaving only four and two species, respectively, in the 1- and 20-year-old banana groves. The study showed that termite species diversity declines when the natural forest is cleared and cultivated. It is suggested that reduction in termite diversity alters ecological processes and may result in diminishing productivity with time.

Fields, networks, creativity and evolution.

Organisms constitute wholes as a result of a network of organizing relations between the parts. In animals, this network has a morphological as well as a psychological aspect, and it regulates morphogenesis as well as behaviour. It is pointed out that closed networks of higher order, that have the characteristics of single organisms (communities of ants, termites and bees, cases of symbiosis, and perhaps even the Earth), could also possess that regulating aspect. In the case of humans, the network can be associated with creativity and the structure of knowledge. Individuation (as defined in Jung's psychology) refers to the assimilation of the network into consciousness. The theory developed in the present paper could give rise to a multi-disciplinary approach to the study of life.