Terminological Confusion Research Articles

Значливість перекладу для філософської освіти (на прикладі українського перекладу «Критики чистого розуму» Імануеля Канта)

The paper deals with the Ukrainian translation of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1781/87). We tried to answer the question of whether the Ukrainian reader who is willing to understand Kant's argument but does not understand the German original would be able to understand it by using only accessible now Ukrainian translation of this text. After checking the adequacy of terminological patterns applied in the translation and the correctness of the interpretation of overly complex syntax used by Kant, we concluded that it is impossible to understand Kant's argument by reading only accessible now Ukrainian translation of this text. It is noted that an unavoidable condition for a professional translation's success is the professional community's agreement on how specific terms of a particular author should be translated so that there could not be any terminological confusion during discussions. It is unacceptable when different words in the original language denote the same term in the original. The translation is always an interpretation.
 Consequently, the reader has to interpret the interpretation, so the translator's maximum task is to preserve the original meaning's multidimensionality as much as possible. However, it is, of course, impossible to achieve the multidimensionality inherent in the original completely. We concluded that the translator of a classical philosophical text should be a researcher who has proven his or her understanding of both the text he or she translates and the tradition to which this text belongs. All these conditions were not adequately met in the case of the translation of Kant's Critique. Due to many inconsistencies in the available Ukrainian translation of the Critique of Pure Reason, errors in the interpretation of the Kant's syntax, and sometimes even Kant's vocabulary, the reader will not be able to understand the key Kant terms.

CASE-LAW PRACTICE: ON THE ISSUES OF CORRELATION WITH RELATED NOTIONS

The article substantiates the need for research and formation of a complete and comprehensive concept of case-law practice, which should take into account the tendency of convergence and functional similarity of legal phenomena in modern legal systems. The formation of such a concept implies the needs to define the notions related to case-law practice as well as to designate a correlation with them. Attention is drawn to the importance of defining such related notions, the use of which can lead to terminological confusion and differences in their understanding. Therefore, the correlation with such related notions as judicial practice, case law, judicial precedent is identified. In the broad meaning of the term «judicial practice», which denotes the notion of activity or results of activity of all judicial bodies, it will correlate with the term «case-law practice» as a species notion that is included into the generic notion of judicial practice. In addition, the author takes into account the meaning of the term «judicial practice», used in the Civil law doctrine («jurisprudence constante», «ständige Rechtsprechung», «prajudice», «judicature» etc.), according to which judicial practice is not a set of any decisions in specific cases, but repetitive and stable, as well as not of any judicial bodies, but only of the supreme courts in the leading cases, and which become de facto binding on the lower courts. In this meaning, case-law practice will be the broader notion that includes judicial practice. Case law is also a notion related with case-law practice. Case law covers legal norms formed in the decisions of the supreme courts, and is used primarily in Common law as opposed to statutory law. Case law does not include all decisions and not of all judicial bodies, but only such decisions of the supreme courts that contain legal norms, i.e. binding judicial precedents. Case law does not cover convincing persuasive precedents of the lower courts, which have a recommendatory nature. Therefore, case law is the part of case-law practice, which in addition to case law also includes judicial precedents of the lower courts. It is substantiated that case-law practice is a collective notion that covers a set of judicial precedents, just similarly as the notion of legislation is a collective concept of laws. The distinction between these notions, despite the fact that in most cases the ambiguity of such terms that denote them, is removed by the context of their usage, allows us to clarify the features and nature of case-law practice. Key words: judicial precedent, judicial practice, unity of judicial practice, judiciary, supreme courts, court decision, comparative jurisprudence

Sociological aspects of assessing security at the organizational level (on the example of preschools)

The article identifies interpretations of (social) security which can be used in the sociological analysis of its features, factors and methods for ensuring it at the theoretical and empirical level. In particular, the authors note the current shift of security interpretations from the state-centric to the social-centric approach, which significantly expanded the possibilities of operationalizing this concept and explains the sociological interest in security despite the remaining terminological confusion. Security turned out to be embedded in the already established conceptual field consisting of such terms as risks, dangers, challenges, threats, violence, etc. (‘objective’ phenomena) and anxieties, fears, concerns, etc. (formats of social understanding and ‘measurement’ of ‘objective’ phenomena in the opinion polls). To demonstrate the possibilities of sociology of security (although this is rather a conditional branch of sociology) at the organizational level, the authors present the results of the empirical study conducted as a case study (both the region and the object serve as a case) in the form of a survey: the issues of ensuring security of preschool organizations in the Odintsovo District of the Moscow Region were examined through the requests of different actors of the educational process (administrators, teachers and parents). According to the survey results, parents and employees of preschool organizations (managers and senior teachers) agree that a video surveillance system in the premises and on the territory is a certain security guarantee for it would prevent outsiders from entering (security threats are considered as coming from outside); however, both groups do not consider a system of turnstiles and passes as a necessary measure. The heads and teachers of preschool organizations are more concerned about countering terrorism (pressure from ‘above’) and fire safety (they see security threats as coming from both outside and ‘inside’). Thus, there is a disagreement of different actors on the sources and severity of security threats for preschool organizations.

Phylogeography and the Description of Geographic Patterns in Invasion Genomics

Phylogeography is an integrative discipline that aims to understand the geographic ordination of genotypes. In recent decades, phylogeographic approaches have been used to enhance our understanding of both biogeography and landscape genetics across a variety of spatial and temporal scales. By definition, species studied using these approaches need to meet certain assumptions (e.g. mutation and drift need to be at equilibrium). However, artificially dispersed species (i.e. non-indigenous, naturalised and invasive species) often do not comply with these assumptions. Thus, the use of phylogeographic approaches to study these species may lead to erroneous interpretations. Considering that self-denominated phylogeographic studies of invasive species have proliferated in recent years and that genomic tools are now more accessible than ever before, kick starting this debate is particularly timely. We argue herein that invasion scientists must carefully use phylogeographic approaches when studying genomic data obtained from the introduced range. In addition, the assumptions of these phylogeographic approaches need to be explicitly considered when interpreting genomic patterns of invasive species. Finally, we suggest abandoning the use of the term ‘phylogeography' for describing geographically contextualized genomic data from the introduced range to avoid both terminological and methodological confusion.

Сутність поняття «електронний словник»: проблеми дефініції, загальні й диференційні ознаки

The article deals with the problem of defining the essence of the concept "electronic dictionary". Different approaches to understanding the content, scope and features of the basic concept of computer lexicography are described, as the issue of lexicographic objects’ nomenclature is ambiguous and acquires special controversy regarding electronic dictionaries. The range of computer lexicography products is so wide and varied that attempts to limit the scope of these concepts to a single definition seem almost impossible. The problems of definition are due to both the relative novelty and complexity of the nature of the denotation, which has many synonymous significations: "machine-readable", "automatic", " automated ", "computer", "electronic", "digital" dictionary, the simultaneous rotation of which leads to terminological inconsistency and confusion. In scientific works, these concepts are often used in logical relations of identity, subordination, coordination and inclusion. The purpose of the article is to analyse the concept "electronic dictionary" in the context of modern research in the field of computer lexicography, scientific and regulatory sources. Such methods as an analysis of scientific sources, comparison, generalization and systematization have been applied in the research. It has been established, that, at present, there is no single point of view among scholars not only on terminology but also on the interpretation of the concept denoted by these terms. In Ukraine, the terminology of computer lexicography is not standardized. Based on the analysis and generalization of scientific works and current standards of electronic editions, the common and differential features of the concept of "electronic dictionary" are revealed, its essence is specified. An electronic dictionary is defined as an electronic reference edition placed on electronic storage media or network, which contains an ordered list of linguistic units with information on their meaning, use, structure, origin or (and) translated into another language, and which cannot be transformed into paper analogue without reducing its functions. Considerable attention is paid to the comparison of functional and structural features of printing and electronic dictionaries. An electronic dictionary is a specific lexicographic object that enables to implement many productive ideas that are not demanded in printed dictionaries for various reasons. Theoretical and empirical studies in the field of computer lexicography is a promising area of further research.

Results Of Surgical Treatment Of Recurrent Echinococcosis Of Lungs Depending On The Morphological Modifications

Along with the increase in the number of new cases, there is a large percentage of echinococcosis relapses, the frequency of which, according to various authors, varies widely from 3.3 to 54%, due to the existing terminology confusion. Material and methods of research. In the period from 2005 to 2019, 53 patients with recurrent echinococcosis of the lungs were operated on in the surgical Department of the 1st Sammi clinic. Research result. Immediate complications after surgery were observed in 6 (11.3%) patients. Postoperative mortality was observed in 1 (1.9%) case. The cause of death was acute cardiovascular failure. Conclusions. Analysis of the morphological characteristics of echinococcal cysts of the lungs showed that recurrent echinococcosis was most often found in echinococcus veterinorum (50.9%), echinococcus hominis (37.7%), and in echinococcus acephalocystis, there were no relapses of the disease, and if there were (6 – 11.3%), we associate this with reinvasia of the parasite.

Novelty, unexpectedness and surprise: a conceptual clarification

ABSTRACT This research note distinguishes between the concepts of novelty, unexpectedness and surprise applied in research on tourism experiences. In the existing tourism discourse, these concepts are used interchangeably, generating terminological ambiguity and conceptual confusion. However, in cognitive psychology, each term has a distinct and identifiable meaning. This short communication articulates and interprets each concept through the lens of feelings-as-information and cognitive appraisal theories. In cognitive psychology, novelty is an appraisal dimension influencing the intensity of emotion. Unexpectedness is explained as a conscious recognition that novelty or a feeling of surprise has been experienced. Surprise, on the other hand, is defined as an unconscious (emotional) state, as well as conscious awareness of the event associated with feelings, which occurs due to the mismatch between expectations and actual experience (leading to an appraisal of novelty). Each of these three concepts has neutral valence, and thus may be associated with both pleasant and unpleasant tourism experiences. Overall, this research demonstrates that the use of cognitive psychology can provide much needed conceptual clarity on mental processes which underpin travel behaviour and experience memorability.

INTRODUCTION THE CONCEPT OF STRENGHTENING THE RESILIENCE OF SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION THE CONCEPT OF STRENGHTENING THE RESILIENCE OF SOCIETY

КОЛЛЕКТИВНАЯ ИСТОРИЧЕСКАЯ ПАМЯТЬ: ОСНОВАНИЯ ВЫДЕЛЕНИЯ ПОНЯТИЯ И РОЛЬ В СОВРЕМЕННОЙ КУЛЬТУРЕ

Актуальность исследования: понятие «коллективная историческая память» вызывает множество разногласий, связанных с его содержанием и употреблением. Статья посвящена проблеме использования концепта «коллективная историческая память» и анализу оснований для его выделения в качестве понятия, которое имеет свое смысловое содержание и существенные признаки. В работе исследовались роль и место концепта в современной культуре. Цель состоит в том, чтобы обосновать смысловое содержание и существенные признаки концепта «коллективная историческая память», показать, что оно может использоваться в качестве самостоятельного понятия. Как смысловой концепт данное понятие не подменяет другие, обладает теоретической и эвристической ценностью. Коллективная историческая память – это ментальная способность социальных групп и нации в процессе коллективного запоминания и забвения символически реконструировать значимые исторические события, придавая им определенную ценностную трактовку. В статье выявлены существенные отличия коллективной исторической памяти от идеологии, определен принцип комплементарности как принцип, описывающий специфику взаимодействия коллективной исторической памяти с исторической наукой, указаны существенные отличия в содержании понятий «историческое сознание» и «коллективная историческая память», обозначены причины, по которым эти понятия не могут выступать как синонимы. Методы: теоретико-методологической основой выступают теории памяти как социокультурного феномена (М. Хальбвакса, П. Нора, П. Рикера, А. Ассман и др.), концепции, посвященные взаимоотношениям коллективной исторической памяти с идеологией, исторической наукой и историческим сознанием (А. Альтюссера, С. Жижека, А.В. Рубцова, Х. Вельцера, Дж. К. Олика и др.). Выводы: обосновывается эвристическая ценность понятия «коллективная историческая память». Раскрываются его смысловое содержание и внутренние противоречия, приводящие к терминологической путанице в социально-философском научном дискурсе. Понятие «коллективная историческая память» обладает теоретической ценностью, поскольку описывает уникальный феномен – фундаментальную способность социальных групп и нации в целом сохранять и реконструировать воспоминания о совместном историческом опыте.

Problems of classification of extremist crimes

he article presents the results of a study of the problems of classification of extremist acts based on the Criminal Code ofUkraine. The classification of extremist acts contributes to a deeper understanding of the essence of such attacks and is the basis forbuilding a system to counter extremism in Ukraine. The author analyzes the grounds for distinguishing a criminological group underthe general name «extremist crimes». The lack of unanimity among scholars regarding the name by which extremist acts should be de -signated in domestic legal literature has been ascertained. It is proposed to further use the concept of «extremist crimes» in order toeliminate terminological confusion in the field of countering extremism. Based on the results of the study, it was proposed that extremistcrimes be classified according to the criterion of a tribal object of assault.The findings of the study contain a list of extremist crimes that is not exhaustive. A broad and narrow approach to understandingthe category of «extremist crimes» has been proposed. Crimes related to extremist activities (extremist crimes in the broad sense) are proposed to be classified into extremist acts themselves, that is, extremist crimes in the narrow sense and crimes related to extremism,directly related to extremist activities, but not extremist acts.It is concluded that the system of extremist crimes is composed not only of extremist acts themselves, but also crimes that ensurethe implementation of extremist activities and are directly related to it. In order to ensure a systemic counteraction to extremism,extremist crimes in the broad sense include not only extremist acts themselves – crimes provided for by the Criminal Code of Ukrainecommitted from extremist motives (purposes), but also crimes that ensure the implementation of extremist activity and are directly relatedto it. It is worth taking into account that terrorist crimes and «separatist» crimes are covered by the concept of «extremist crimes».Extremist crimes should be divided into political, national, religious, economic and environmental.

Clarifying the Matter: Modernizing Peace, Order, and Good Government in the Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act Appeals

Few passages in the Canadian Constitution have generated as much debate over the years as the opening words of section 91 of the Constitution Act, 1867 commonly known as the Peace, Order, and Good Government (hereinafter “POGG”) clause. Most of the controversy about POGG centers around how to interpret the clause in a way that allows the federal government to address issues of genuine national concern (that warrant a national response) while respecting provincial autonomy and diversity in our federation. The tensions underpinning POGG were recently revealed in the trio of provincial challenges to the constitutionality of Parliament’s Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act (GGPPA), in which provinces argued that upholding the GGPPA would have the effect of displacing provincial jurisdiction over GHG emissions. While two of the three Courts of Appeal (Saskatchewan and Ontario) upheld the GGPPA as a matter of national concern under POGG, doing so was apparently a struggle, as they strained against the watertight confines of earlier eras of constitutional interpretation still evident in POGG jurisprudence. Now under appeal to the Supreme Court, this trio of references offers an opportunity for the Court to clarify the contours of POGG in the modern context of flexible, cooperative federalism. In this article, we examine three central tensions that the GGPPA appeals revealed about POGG. First, we consider, and reject, the argument that POGG benefits from a special kind of exclusivity, different from enumerated powers, that has the effect of displacing provincial power. We show that this argument is steeped in the bygone era of watertight compartments and a suggestion that POGG creates an unassailable core, akin to that which underpins the doctrine of interjurisdictional immunity. We explain why this argument is unfounded in the modern era of cooperative federalism. Second, we examine a source of confusion in the GGPPA appeals related to how the word ‘matter’ is used, which we submit contributed to the challenging provinces’ fear that provincial power will be permanent displaced if the legislation is upheld under POGG. Specifically, the challenging provinces argued that upholding the GGPPA would necessarily create a new sub-head of exclusive federal power over a broad subject matter (GHG emissions) that would displace their jurisdiction. We discuss how the word ‘matter’ is used to refer both to the pith and substance of legislation and the possibility of a new sub-head of power that could be recognized for Parliament if the law is upheld. We submit that this terminological confusion fuels the fears about the impact of upholding the legislation under POGG on provinces. Third, and most importantly, we consider the extent to which federal jurisdiction under POGG can peacefully co-exist with related provincial authority. The provincial appeals have revealed that most of the justices – even those that upheld the GGPPA – are operating under an assumption that the double aspect doctrine does not apply to matters justified under POGG. We examine the historical development of the double aspect doctrine to show that there is no basis for this assumption, and suggest the Supreme Court should clarify that the doctrine applies to matters upheld under POGG, just as it would for enumerated powers. We also argue in this paper that the Supreme Court should update the test set out in Crown Zellerbach more than 30 years ago. In the intervening decades, the courts have more fully embraced a flexible interpretation of the division of powers that tolerates more de facto concurrent operation of statutes on similar subject matters. The provincial challenges have revealed the extent to which the Crown Zellerbach test, and specifically the way in which the potential scale of impact on provincial jurisdiction is evaluated, leaves much uncertainty about the level of overlap that can operate. We deconstruct the Crown Zellerbach test and propose a more flexible, nuanced, analytical approach that empowers the federation to address pressing public policy problems such as climate change in a way that respects federalism. Ultimately, the Supreme Court has an opportunity in the GGPPA appeals to interpret POGG in a way that empowers all levels of government in our federation to respond to increasingly pressing, dynamic, multi-dimensional public policy challenges, such as climate change. Our article shows that there is a role for POGG to play in enabling the federal government to be accountable for reducing the country’s overall level of emissions in accordance with international commitments while also allowing the provinces to continue legislating to reduce GHG emissions.

Resistencia y resiliencia a las enfermedades en las razas de rumiantes locales: un enfoque en América del Sur

La pérdida de variabilidad genética de interés ha tomado importancia no sólo la producción, sino también porque puede tener un efecto negativo en la epidemiología de las enfermedades animales. La actividad ganadera puede presentar considerables pérdidas económicas periódicas debido a la eliminación de animales, la reducción de la productividad, la falta de expresión del potencial genético de los animales, los costes de tratamiento, la asistencia laboral y profesional, el cierre del comercio debido a los obstáculos sanitarios y la competencia con los mercados extranjeros. Por lo tanto, la resistencia a las enfermedades es un atributo deseado en la producción ganadera y la salud animal puede estar limitando en los sistemas de producción de ganado. Existe cierta confusión en la terminología: la resistencia se define como la capacidad del huésped para ejercer cierto grado de control sobre el ciclo de vida del patógeno, mientras que la tolerancia define el impacto de la infección en el rendimiento animal. Un concepto muy cercano a la tolerancia es la resiliencia, que se puede definir como mantener la capacidad productiva del animal frente a la infección. Existen numerosos informes que indican las razas locales como un importante reservorio de resistencia genética natural a las enfermedades como un proceso de adaptabilidad al medio ambiente. Refiriéndose a las principales enfermedades de los animales domésticos (tuberculosis, brucelosis, fiebre aftosa, etc.), numerosos genes han sido identificados y estudiados como biomarcadores de resistencia y tolerancia como los genes BOLA, CD, NOD y SLC11A1 entre los más importantes. Aunque el factor limitante para que los programas de reproducción incluyan resistencia a enfermedades genéticas es la necesidad de cuantificar los fenotipos de resistencia. Esto puede ser costoso y logísticamente difícil, y es una barrera significativa para la selección de la resistencia a las enfermedades. Por esta razón, las características de resistencia a la enfermedad son un objetivo atractivo para los estudios genómicos y generalmente son objeto de estos estudios.

Terminological Games: The Finnish Security Police Monitoring the Far-Right Movements in Finland During the Cold War

This article focuses on the use of terms and concepts related to the nationalist movements by the Finnish security police during the Cold War. The key objective of the security police was to protect the legal order of the state and monitor the groups and phenomena potentially harmful to that cause. The previous experience regarding the rise of the radical nationalism and fascism in Finland in the 1930s and the 1947 Paris peace treaties were the historical and legal contexts within which the interpretations were made. As the article shows, interpretation made by the security police, however, relied occasionally on a limited understanding about the evolving far-right scene, thus producing terminological confusions, and in some cases even evidently biased interpretative patterns may be observed. The article also studies how terms and concepts produce differing evaluations and differing understandings regarding the phenomena at hand. The analysis is supplemented by a short excursion on the other side exploring how the far-right used the terms in order to avoid police scrutiny.

Has multiculturalism failed? Let's start the era of interculturalism for facing diversity issues

ABSTRACT In view of the primary challenges facing contemporary society, such as globalisation and interdependence, the author reflects on the question of what the most appropriate educational policy and pedagogical approach is: transcultural education, multicultural education, or intercultural education. Based on historical developments in the US and in Europe, he first presents a terminological and semantic clarification. Then, considering the existing terminological confusion and misunderstandings across the world and disciplines, he underlines the urgency to develop a shared terminology. He proposes to use the adjective ‘multicultural’ in descriptive terms (societies are multicultural) and applies multicultural education as a strategy for improving knowledge about and respect for ethnic and cultural diversities. The concept ‘intercultural’ should be utilised in reference to intervention, where intercultural education is viewed as an activity in which one engages in interaction: encounter, contact, dialogue, and conflict management. In his opinion, nowadays, intercultural education also has to include new challenges and different forms of diversity, including neoliberalism, climate change, power, and special needs.

ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL CORD’S BLOOD SUPPLY. Review

Relevance. The traditional scheme of blood supply to the spinal cord, formed in the 60-70s of the last century, does not correspond to the pathogenesis of many neurological disorders of the spinal cord. There is also a discrepancy in terminology: the names of arteries found in surgical and neurological works do not correspond to the names of the International Anatomical Nomenclature. Therefore, today this issue needs further analysis.
 Objective: to summarize the information of different authors on the number of spinal branches and their branches, topography, blood supply to each segment of the spinal cord, to analyze the individual variability of sources of blood supply to the spinal cord.
 Materials and methods. Analysis of scientific publications in the international electronic scientometric database PubMed by keywords for the period 2000-2018. and comparing these data with the imaginations of 1760-1993.
 Results. The idea of ​​the structural organization of the blood supply to the spinal cord has changed. With modern data, intracranial sources, namely: anterior and posterior spinal arteries, the blood supply to the true cervical spinal cord, and the rest of the department - lower cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal - blood supply from extracranial sources, and they exist in this area segmental branches of the aorta. Nowadays, extracranial sources are considered the main in the blood supply to the spinal cord. It is now known that the anterior and posterior spinal arteries are intermittent and cannot provide blood supply to the spinal cord, as previously thought. The general plan of arterial blood supply of a spinal cord can be presented in the form of a set of pools of front and back radical (radiculomedullary) arteries. The anterior radicular arteries are 4-8, and the posterior 15-20, respectively, along the spinal cord in its ventral and dorsal departments the same number of arterial pools are formed. There are anastomotic connections between these pools, which are not always functionally complete. Each of these basins is supplied by a separate radiculomedullary artery. Each such artery feeds not one but several segments of the spinal cord. The number and levels of approach to the spinal cord of radiculomedullary arteries, especially the anterior ones, differ significantly in individual variability. The perception of the vascularization of the cervical spinal cord was analyzed. At different times, information about the number of arteries that supplied blood to this department differed significantly: in 1760 it was believed that it was 31 arteries; and in 1882-1939 - only 7; in 1943 - 27, in 1958 - 6-8; in 1958 - 7-10; in 1961-1963 - 5-8; in 1966-1973 - 5; in 1993 - 1-2 arteries. Such different information about spinal cord vascularization is the result of significant individual variability.
 Conclusions. Incomplete current knowledge about the blood supply to the spinal cord is the cause of unresolved problems of etiology, pathogenesis, and clinical course of spinal ischemic strokes, including cervical localization. The existing terminological confusion regarding the names of the arteries that supply blood to the spinal cord, in particular its cervical region, is explained by the significant variability of the radiculomedullary arteries of this zone in terms of number, diameter, and location. Due to the existence of arterio-venous anastomoses, arterial myelobulbar anastomoses, adjacent areas of blood supply in this area, theft phenomena are formed and distant foci of ischemia appear, including both the spinal cord and the brain. Therefore, in order to make an angiotopic diagnosis, it is necessary to take into account not only anatomical but also physiological and pathophysiological aspects of regulation and compensation of cerebral circulation.

Representation of subjectively-evaluative derivates realization in modern Russian: verbal evaluatives

A verb, as one of the basic parts of speech, is the primary concern of derivation process-oriented studies. However, verb-based subjectively-evaluative derivatives have not been the object of research yet. The article discusses potential capacities of verbs to form subjectivelyevaluative derivatives on the level of derivation in modern Russian. To avoid terminological confusion and to distinguish axiological vs. derivational evaluation the latter is represented by the term evaluative. The study argues an unjustified idea that the suffix -ану- is an evaluative of subjective evaluation. These verbs are referred to the derivatives of objective evaluation. We have provided a set of factors for the classification of subjectively-evaluative verbal derivatives, according to which they were classified. The analysis of language and speech material has allowed us to find the ways evaluative verbs are formed and the register of word forming affixes as a means of representing category of evaluation in the morpheme and word forming structure of the word.

Health inequalities: new theoretical perspectives

This article, I intend to articulate the theoretical problem of economic and social inequalities with the issue of the social determination of health. Initially, I provide a summary of Rawls' and Sen's theories of justice and equity as an illustration of the dominant perspective in Northern epistemologies. Second, I discuss applications of this theoretical framework in the literature on social inequalities and the social determination of health-illness-care. Thirdly, I present a semantic matrix proposed for the difference-distinction-inequality-inequity-iniquity series to help reduce the existing terminological confusion. Next, I introduce a synthetic theoretical model about the poverty-inequality dyad, referring to the concepts of social resources, health practices, health services, and health situation/conditions. Finally, oriented by an epistemological perspective from the global South, and taking the current Brazilian situation as a case study, I discuss political implications of the complex contemporary conjuncture, pertinent to the hypothesis that a process of transformation of economic inequalities into new forms of social inequities and health iniquities is currently underway.

Autoritõlke teoreetilisest ja praktilisest väärtusest Jaan Kaplinski luuletuse "Valgus ei saagi vanaks" näitel / On the theoretical and practical significance of self-translation on the example of Jaan Kaplinski's poem "Light Does Not Get Old"

Autoritõlke teoreetilisest ja praktilisest väärtusest Jaan Kaplinski luuletuse "Valgus ei saagi vanaks" näitel / On the theoretical and practical significance of self-translation on the example of Jaan Kaplinski's poem "Light Does Not Get Old"

Reflections on Visual and Material Sources for the History of the Exact Sciences in Early Imperial China.

This article takes stock of the seeming wealth of visual and material sources concerning stars and numbers that has come down to us from early imperial China (221 BCE-755CE) and their minimal impact on how we write the history of astronomy and mathematics in this period. My goal is to offer ideas about how we might better engage with these sources and work across ancient and modern disciplines. Ibegin by outlining the conceptual categories into which our historical subjects divided these sciences, followed by an overview of those visual and material sources we know from textual sources to have once existed versus those that are currently extant. The historiographic disconnect, Iargue, is due in part to an inherent disconnect in the sources that have survived and, in some degree, to terminological and categorical confusion between those working in the history of science, divination, and art. Pointing to what are, in my opinion, good examples of how we might move forward and beyond the limits imposed by our sources and disciplinary boundaries, Ithen end on alist of questions Ithink fruitful to explore. What, for example, do we mean by "accuracy" when speaking of how constellations are represented in technical literature and tomb murals?

New perspectives on speech motor planning and programming in the context of the four- level model and its implications for understanding the pathophysiology underlying apraxia of speech and other motor speech disorders

ABSTRACT Background: The complexity of speech motor control, and the incomplete conceptualisation of phases in the transformation of the speech code from linguistic symbols to a code amenable to a motor system, tend to obscure the understanding of acquired apraxia of speech (AOS). The four-level framework (FLF) of speech sensorimotor control suggests the differentiation between speech motor planning, programming and execution and locate the locus of disruption in AOS in the motor planning phase. Currently, terminological confusion and uncertainty regarding phases in speech motor control still complicate the characterisation of AOS. This neuromotor disorder is inconsistently described in the literature as a “planning or programming”, “planning and programming”, or as a “planning and/or programming” disorder. Purpose: To describe a new version of the FLF, the FL (four-level) model, which further explicates and differentiates between speech motor planning, programming, and execution levels or phases of processing; to integrate concepts from computational modelling into the FL model and propose distinct control architectures for both the planning and programming levels; and to identify the loci and nature of disruption in the motor planning phase which could explain the pathophysiology and core features of AOS. Discussion and Conclusions: A four-level model is presented that differentiates two pre-execution phases and an execution phase. The first pre-execution phase is controlled by a motor planner and involves an inverse model, an efference copy, and a forward model for each sound or over-learnt utterance. This phase also involves a forward predictive planner which enables the system to handle the planning of several sounds and to plan coarticulation of sounds. The motor planner is operated according to an auxiliary forward model architecture. AOS is depicted as a breakdown at several possible points in the motor planning phase. The second pre-execution phase is driven by a motor program generator and predictive controller that is governed by an integral forward model architecture. The final execution phase is portrayed as being driven by closed loop control. The conceptualization of the programmer challenges the traditional view of execution and not only that of planning as is generally accepted. The implications for the classification of motor speech disorders are discussed. Future research should address the exact nature of articulatory movements and other features of speech across the range of planning, pure programming, programming-execution and pure execution disorders.