Terminal Operations Research Articles

Optimizing Container Crane Performance: Enhancing Loading and Unloading Productivity at PT. Kaltim Kariangau Terminal

Container terminals are critical nodes in global trade, where productivity hinges on the efficiency of handling equipment like container cranes. At PT. Kaltim Kariangau, a terminal jointly managed by PT. Pelindo and the East Kalimantan provincial government, operational challenges persist despite infrastructure enhancements. In 2023, an additional crane was introduced to the terminal, increasing the total to three. However, issues such as prolonged idle times and equipment malfunctions adversely impacted crane efficiency. This research evaluates crane performance using BCH (Box/Crane/Hour) and BSH (Box/Ship/Hour) metrics to assess their effect on loading and unloading productivity. The analysis reveals that in 2023, the average crane performance was 27 boxes/hour, a level classified as good. Paradoxically, overall productivity declined post-crane addition compared to prior operations. Using regression analysis, the study identifies a strong positive correlation (R = 0.7316) between crane performance and terminal productivity, with a coefficient of determination (R²) indicating that crane efficiency accounts for 54% of productivity variations. The findings highlight that improved crane performance directly enhances operational output, where each unit increase in BCH corresponds to a 1.809-unit rise in productivity. Hypothesis testing confirms that crane performance significantly influences loading and unloading efficiency. These results underscore the need for effective equipment utilization and maintenance strategies to optimize terminal operations. The research concludes that while infrastructure upgrades are essential, addressing operational inefficiencies is critical to achieving sustainable productivity improvements.

Optimization of Container Terminal Operations Using Response Surface Methodology

Optimization of Container Terminal Operations Using Response Surface Methodology

Building resilience in LNG marine terminal operations: a comprehensive socio-technical risk analysis utilizing the resilience assessment grid (RAG) method

Abstract In the face of rising global energy demand, LNG terminals play an essential role in the energy supply chain. However, the complexity of terminal operations, combined with the risk of catastrophic events, necessitates a robust resilience framework. This paper presents a comprehensive socio-technical resilience analysis that uses the Resilience Assessment Grid (RAG) methodology to measure resilience in LNG terminal operations. We examine the complex interplay of human elements, organizational culture, and technological systems in the terminal environment. Our approach uses the RAG methodology to identify vulnerabilities, assess the potential impact of disruptions, and assess the effectiveness of current safety and risk management practices. The results of this study show that the implementation of the safety concept at the LNG Marine Terminal is quite optimal, as indicated by the compliance figures for each resilience aspect, which exceed three as a benchmark. The highest score in the entire system is found in the ability to respond aspect, namely 4.38, which shows that the organization, in implementing this concept, still focuses on preventing and controlling accidents. This condition differs from the ability to monitor aspect, which has the lowest value, 3.97. However, this item cannot be called an inhibiting factor because its value exceeds the expected standard. In response, there is still room for improvement from existing achievements in the future.

Risk-based approach for safe terminal operation and route planning of on-road hydrogen distribution network

Risk-based approach for safe terminal operation and route planning of on-road hydrogen distribution network

Optimization of Reclaiming–Loading Scheduling in Dry Bulk Terminals Based on Knowledge-Driven Memetic Algorithm

Reclaiming–loading operations in dry bulk terminals often face conflicts and delays due to limitations in equipment processing capacity and operational line accessibility, which significantly compromise the safety and efficiency of these operations. This paper aims to optimize the reclaiming–loading schedule for each incoming vessel by considering parallel equipment operations and potential conflicts, with the goal of enhancing both the safety and efficiency of the loading processes. Through a detailed analysis of bulk reclaiming and reclaiming–loading mechanisms, we formulate the dry bulk terminal loading scheduling problem to minimize the total operational time for all loading tasks, taking into account constraints such as parallel reclaiming, collaborative loading, operational conflicts, and line accessibility. In order to obtain a good solution, including task execution sequences and allocation of reclaimers and shiploaders, a knowledge-driven memetic algorithm is developed by integrating knowledge-driven mechanisms with problem-specific operators within a memetic computing framework. Finally, numerical experiments for various scales are conducted using the layout and operational data from the Huanghua Port’s coal port area. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed optimization algorithm.

Train assignment and handling capacity arrangement in multi-yard railway container terminals: An enhanced adaptive large neighborhood search heuristic approach

Expanding terminal scale and constructing multiple railway handling yards have become popular strategies for leading railway container terminals globally to cope with the ever-increasing handling volume. Although such an approach greatly enhances the terminal’s productivity, it also intensifies handling operations and introduces additional inter-yard interactions, complicating terminal management. To address these challenges, this paper investigates an integrated optimization approach for multi-yard railway container terminals, which feature both rail-road and rail-rail container transshipment operations. The train assignment plan for each yard and the handling capacity arrangement for each train are jointly optimized while considering inter-yard container transits, workload allocation for yards, and safety requirements in train shunting. This problem is formulated as a nonlinear programming model, with the objective to minimize operational delay and service time for each incoming train, and to minimize workload differences and container transit volume among yards. To efficiently solve this problem, this research develops an enhanced adaptive large neighborhood search (EALNS) heuristic, which includes several customized operators and feasibility repair methods, and is further enhanced with a local search method and backtracking mechanism compared to the standard ALNS framework. Computational experiments with different data scales and problem settings demonstrate the superiority of the EALNS in terms of solution quality and stability compared with three other solution methods. Additionally, practical insights for terminal operations are drawn through detailed analysis of different infrastructure configurations, transshipment train characteristics, and unit cost settings.

Estimation of direction and zero errors of satellite laser terminals in low-light conditions based on machine learning

In the assembly, launch, and on-orbit operation of satellite optical communication terminals, small deviations are difficult to avoid, which can lead to pointing errors and challenges to the establishment of optical communication links. To estimate the pointing errors of on-orbit satellite terminals, a calibration algorithm is developed based on lunar surface imagery. First, a feature extraction algorithm for low-light images is employed to process consecutive frames of low-light images to obtain a lunar surface feature map. Then, by combining the feature map and error estimation model, predictions of direction errors and zero errors were achieved. The ground validation results demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed on-orbit error estimation algorithm under low-signal-to-noise-ratio conditions.

Analysis and simulation of the operational capacity of a rail motorway terminal

This work aims to analyze the factors that influence the operational time at a railway-motorway intermodal terminal, with a specific focus on the loading and unloading of trains with semi-trailers. This operation is commonly referred to as a rail motorway intermodal process. The terminal under analysis is the Zaragoza-PLAZA intermodal terminal, located in Zaragoza, Spain. Using AnyLogic® PLE, a discrete event and block-based logic simulation software, a model is developed to realistically simulate the terminal's operations, offering potential improvements. The model enables observation of the terminal's behavior by modifying certain parameters. The results obtained can be directly applied to the existing terminal for performance enhancements. Finally, a sensitivity analysis of the model is conducted, allowing us to assess how various factors influence the terminal's operations.

Investigation of some issues of automation of elements of terminal complexes for transshipment of large-capacity containers

The topic of the work is the study of the reasons for increasing the efficiency of the use of marine container transportation in the entire supply chain. It is noted that the increase in their efficiency is explained by the possibility of transporting various types of cargo, the speed of handling vehicles, as well as the compactness of storage and safety of cargo. The problem of increasing ship capacity on the terms of shipping companies, which currently exists and is being solved by container terminal operators, has been formulated, which allows minimizing the time of ships parking in the port for processing, which in turn can be achieved by increasing the capacity of ships. Attention is drawn to the fact that reducing costs by increasing the efficiency of lifting and transport equipment stimulates investments in automation systems for almost all terminal operations, and in particular in lifting and transport equipment systems. It is emphasized that the automation process of container terminals differs depending on the task at hand (a new project is being considered or work is being carried out to automate an existing terminal). The implementation of automation at existing terminals is a more difficult task due to the problems of compatibility with the types of activities performed and resistance to ongoing changes, which primarily involve systematic and repetitive technological processes that can be programmed. Attention is drawn to the fact that container terminals use the latest operating systems to control and optimize the movement of containers inside the warehouse area (in particular, they are used at terminals where gantry cranes on a pneumatic (RTG) and on a rail (RMG) are used), and it is also emphasized that when working with RTG technology gantry cranes on a pneumatic vehicle are equipped with sensors connected to satellite positioning systems, which are located on the terminal area and on wheeled carts and are brought to the place of cargo operation by signals from the control room, at the same time, the dock operator controls only when lowering or lifting the container. Such information systems are also used on terminals operating using RMG technology. It is noted that automation of berthing container cranes is currently under development, since the complexity of its implementation lies in the fact that during pitching the vessel has a roll and a deflector, therefore, when moving it, it is difficult to determine the exact location of the container and the alignment of the spreader horizon with the container horizon, as a result, the guidance process? It requires additional time, which leads to a decrease in work productivity.

Hierarchy and mobility of Latin America and Caribbean container ports

Research on port hierarchies within a maritime region is crucial for comprehending the dynamics of seaborne trade and the broader trends within the maritime sector and related supply chains. This study investigates the evolution of the Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) container ports and regional sub-systems from 2000 to 2022, analyzing traffic dynamics, shifts in port throughput rankings, and market concentration trends in and among the different coastal regions. Conceptually, this analysis benefits from the notion of evolutionary phases, revealing the stages of a port system's development. Methodologically, 49 LAC ports of international interest are categorized into different coastal regions and tiers based on throughput sizes. Various metrics, including the Gini coefficient, Lorenz curve, Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), and Kendall Tau (τ), assess port hierarchy and related mobility since 2000. The observed shifts in the hierarchy and market structures, coupled with the fluctuating positions of critical ports, underscore the transition that LAC container ports dynamics experienced in the 21st century. Following a particularly dynamic and volatile evolution observed in the 2000s, the financial crisis of 2008/09 was a critical juncture leading to the transition of the LAC port dynamics from the ‘emerging’ to the ‘maturity’ phase. On the contrary, the pandemic (2019) has not affected the pre-existing hierarchy or the moderate market concentration that was already in progress. The LAC region comprises port sub-systems (coastal ranges) subjected to different tendencies towards (de)concentration, yet mobility in port rankings within each sub-system decreases. The study also reveals the coexistence of this transition with a structural transformation of port governance structures, i.e., granting of concessions of operations to third parties. In 20 of these ports and the above-average mobility of ports are operated by Global Terminal Operators (GTOs), and calls for further research on the (non) causality of these phenomena.

The economic and environmental viability of green and autonomous ships in inland shipping ecosystems

Abstract This paper explores the potential of using green, autonomous ships in revitalising inland shipping in Europe against the backdrop of declining market share and the dominance of “economy-of-scale” in waterborne freight transportation. It assesses the economic and environmental viability of converting freight from road- to waterborne modalities in broader business ecosystems, specifically along the Rotterdam-Ghent corridor. The analysis leverages operational and commercial insights from logistics firms, ports and terminal operators, combined with data on European goods flows by road, and accounts for operational, financial and environmental variables including realistic scenario building and ecosystem implications. Findings indicate that inland shipping in general and green, autonomous shipping in particular offer both economically and environmentally viable alternatives to road transport. The study calls for further research into green, autonomous ships from an ecosystem perspective as a potential solution to current challenges in sustainable freight transportation.

A Conceptual Model for Automation of Small Ports

Abstract For large ports and terminals, the loading and discharge operations have to a great extent been automated already. However, for the vast number of small ports, for instance all Norwegian ports, this large-scale automation is not possible due to the small size of the ports compared to the cost of introducing full automation. Still, these small ports are important logistics hubs in the transport system. They facilitate the shift from congested roads to the sea by allowing the goods to arrive closer to the final destination by using smaller, possibly autonomous, vessels. However, this puts pressure on the ports to facilitate reduced laytime in the port, to increase the port efficiency and to improve interoperability towards hinterland systems and terminals. For small ports, this means that manual and automated work processes need to exist side by side, and that it will be important to get an overview of which processes to automate and which will remain manual, in addition to the handling of the hand-over between humans and automation. This paper describes a conceptual model that can be used by small ports as a starting point on their way to introduce automation of their services supporting the cargo flow through the port. The model includes a description of port functions, tasks and responsibilities and use the concept of operational envelope to define the overall capabilities of the system, including both automation and human. This will be the starting point for how to structure the description of an operation centre that monitor and control the maritime terminal operations. The starting point for this work is a use case analysis performed in some small ports in Norway, and their need to optimize the utilization of their assets. The work is done as part of the AutoPort project which is a research project funded by the Norwegian Research Council (project number 337211). The goal of this work is to describe a methodology on how to identify the interface between automation and human operators when it comes to small ports and the movement of cargo through its terminals, and by this give a description on how different levels of automation can be implemented. The methodology consists of several steps, including definition of the context (big picture of the use case, actors and their roles, and communication), the scenario (port activities and processes), and the use cases including the control tasks performed by the automated systems.

광양항 항만배후단지 운영성과와 활성화방안 연구

Purpose: This study analyzes the supply plans and performance of the Gwangyang Port hinterland, and proposes activation strategies based on these findings. Research design, data, and methodology: A review of previous research was conducted to examine the definitions, functional changes, types, and designation criteria of port hinterlands. The current supply plans and development status of the Gwangyang Port hinterland were also analyzed. Results: The results show that while the volume of cargo in the hinterland is increasing, its contribution to the total volume of port cargo remains stagnant. Key issues identified include terminal operator productivity, lack of shipping routes, and excessive competition among logistics companies. Conclusions: The study proposes several activation strategies: improving terminal operator efficiency, enhancing support for high-value-added companies, promoting specialized hinterland areas for lifestyle logistics services, and strengthening the role of the Yeosu Gwangyang Port Authority.

Connectivity Analysis of Non-Container Ports at PT Pelindo Multi Terminal Using SNA and GIS / Connectivity Analysis of Non-Container Ports at PT Pelindo Multi Terminal Using SNA and GIS

This study aims to analyze the connectivity of non-containerized ports, particularly in the sub-commodity of vegetable/animal oils and fats, within the operational area of PT Pelindo Multi Terminal. Using Social Network Analysis (SNA) and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques, this study builds a network based on nodes (ports) and assesses inter-node connections with metrics such as degree centrality, betweenness centrality, and hub index. Gephi application was used for the calculation of network metrics, while QGIS visualized the shipping routes. The research revealed that high traffic ports such as Belawan, Dumai, and Tanjung Priok play a crucial role in the network. The findings support recommendations for infrastructure development and implementation of an integrated Terminal Operations System (TOS) to improve logistics efficiency.

Optimization berth allocation in container terminals: A Pyomo and Google Colab approach

Efficient berth allocation profoundly influences container terminal operations, affecting vessel waiting and turnaround times, and overall performance. This study presents a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model addressing the Berth Allocation Problem (BAP) in a Malaysian container port. By incorporating the Pyomo optimization library and CBC (Coin-or Branch and Cut) solver in Google Colab, optimal berth allocations are determined, minimizing vessel turnaround times. Visualized in a Space-Time diagram, the results highlight efficient allocation strategies. Despite limitations, the study optimally resolved three instances, achieving a remarkable 38.54% reduction in overall vessel turnaround time compared to FCFS (First-Come-First-Serve) allocation. By prioritizing port turnaround time, the optimization substantially reduced berthing and departure delays, aligning with UNCTAD's call for enhanced port efficiency and accelerated decarbonization efforts.

Problems of Recycling and Utilization of Household and Industrial Waste in the Coastline of Batumi

Development of the infrastructure of the Black Sea coastal zone is one of the priority directions of Georgia. In order to increase the potential of the tourism sector, it is important to improve the ecological conditions of the Black Sea and the coastline. Despite the national environmental protection programme and the current Law on Waste Management, the problem of waste management is still relevant and noteworthy. The seaport and the terminal operating in Batumi strictly protect the requirements foreseen by the "International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), 1973.“ Moreover, the Order "Rules for Monitoring the Movement of Ships in the Territorial Sea and Harbor Waters of Georgia and the Functioning of the Information System" has been in force since 2016. The purpose of this rule is to ensure the protection of human life, safety of navigation and protection of the marine environment by using the Vessel Traffic Monitoring System in the territorial sea and access corridors to the ports; detection of potential pollution of the marine environment from ships and their prevention. But despite the mentioned regulatory actions, there is a big problem in terms of waste recycling and utilization.The article discusses the issues that make obstacles for ensuring the compliance with environmental protection norms within the city of Batumi and its surrounding area. The authors, taking into account the international experience of obtaining biogas from waste, propose the possibility of obtaining energy from the waste of the Batumi landfill for the purpose of waste recycling and utilization.

Green strategies in ports: a stakeholder management perspective

AbstractThis paper delves into the intricate relationship between green strategies and stakeholder management within the port industry. We employ a robust conceptual framework and a tailored methodology, encompassing all sixteen Italian Port Management Bodies and analysing 344 related green strategies. A unique indirect approach is introduced to identify the primary stakeholders targeted by these strategies. The research identifies three primary categories of green strategies: energy efficiency, electric supply infrastructure development, and renewable energy promotion. These strategies align with increasing environmental expectations and stricter regulations. Terminal operators and local communities emerge as primary stakeholder groups, underscoring their growing influence in port management decisions. This research bridges a substantial gap in the academic literature by shedding light on the benefits of green strategies for the principal port stakeholders and the pivotal role of these strategies for stakeholder management in ports. Port managers can leverage these insights to make informed strategic decisions, strengthen their corporate social responsibility initiatives, and better address environmental concerns while meeting stakeholder expectations. Furthermore, the paper offers valuable guidance to policymakers aiming to stimulate additional investments in environmental sustainability, thereby meeting the expectations of port stakeholders and enhancing port competitiveness.

Advancing container port traffic simulation: A data-driven machine learning approach in sparse data environments

Efficient truck dispatching strategies are paramount in container terminal operations. The quality of these strategies heavily relies on accurate and expedient simulations, which provide a crucial platform for training and evaluating dispatching algorithms. In this study, we introduce data-driven machine learning methods to enhance container port truck dispatching simulation accuracy. These methods effectively surrogate the intersections within the simulation, thereby increasing the accuracy of simulated outcomes without imposing significant computational overhead in sparse data environments. We incorporate three data-driven learning methods: genetic programming (GP), reinforcement learning (RL), and a GP and RL hybrid heuristic (GPRL-H) approach. The GPRL-H method proved the most efficacious through a detailed comparative study, striking an effective balance between simulation accuracy and computational efficiency. It reduced the error rate of simulation from approximately 35% to about 7%, while also halving the simulation time compared to the RL-based method. Our proposed method also does not rely on precise Global Positioning System (GPS) data to simulate truck operations within a port accurately. Demonstrating robustness and adaptability, this approach holds promise for extending beyond port operations to improve the simulation accuracy of vehicle operations in various scenarios characterized by sparse data.

항만당국과 터미널 운영사 간 임대 계약 방식의 성과에 관한 연구

This study examines the performance of port authorities and terminal operators under different types of concession contracts in ports. The port authority signs into a concession contract with the terminal operator to receive fee, and the operator utilizes the terminal to provide loading and unloading services. The demand at the port is affected by the terminal operator's price and service level. This study analyzes the performance of each model using game theory under three different concession schemes: two-part tariff model, revenue-sharing model, and revenue-cost-sharing model. The results show that the revenue-sharing model can improve the profitability of port authorities and terminal operators compared to the two-part tariff model, but it may result in lower service levels at the terminal. On the other hand, the revenue-cost-sharing model can improve both the profit and the service level of each party compared to the two-part tariff model, and can achieve higher performance than the revenue- sharing mode. The significance of this study is that it analyzes the revenue sharing model, which has not been studied much in the past, and considers the service level in analyzing the effect of concession contracts.

Advances in terminal management: simulation of vehicle traffic in container terminals

AbstractControlling and managing traffic flows on internal roads in container terminals are crucial in achieving expected productivity levels and reducing negative externalities caused by congestion inside and outside the terminal areas. This paper proposes a simulation approach which terminal operators can use as a decision-support tool to assess the effects of their management strategies and improve terminal performance, resilience, and sustainability. A microscopic traffic simulation approach models key operations of a typical container terminal affecting road traffic flows. In particular, to estimate quantitative indicators, an import truck process is reproduced, considering the overlapping of the external truck and internal trailer flows. To measure environmental impacts, the model is extended with an instantaneous emissions model linked directly to the step-by-step traffic data. The proposed method is tested on a sector of the PSA Genova Pra’, the main Italian container gateway terminal. Performance indicators related to the terminal’s efficiency and sustainability are estimated, to compare alternative scenarios considering possible operational configurations and disturbance events, such as the closure of a part of the yard. By focusing on the interactions between vehicle flows and terminal equipment operations, this approach offers a new perspective on terminal operations, oriented both towards container terminal operators and stakeholders, such as road hauliers.