Terminal Buds Research Articles

Gene profiling involved in fate determination of salivary gland type in mouse embryogenesis.

Salivary gland (SG) development involves dynamic epithelial-mesenchymal interactions resulting in the formation of highly branched epithelial structures that produce and secrete saliva. The SG epithelium differentiates into saliva-producing terminal buds, i.e., acini, and transporting ducts. Most studies on the salivary gland have focused on branching morphogenesis; however, acinar cell differentiation underlying the determination of serous or mucous salivary glands is unclear. The objective of this study was to identify the mesenchymal signaling molecules involved in the epithelial differentiation of the salivary gland type as serous or mucous. Salivary glands undergoing stage-specific development, including the parotid gland (PG) and the sublingual gland (SLG) at embryonic day 14.5 (E14.5) were dissected. The glands were treated with dispase II to separate the epithelium and the mesenchyme. RNA from mesenchyme was processed for microarray analysis. Thereafter, microarray data were analyzed to identify putative candidate molecules involved in salivary gland differentiation and confirmed via quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The microarray analysis revealed the expression of 31,873 genes in the PG and SLG mesenchyme. Of the expressed genes 21,026 genes were found to be equally expressed (Fold change 1.000) in both PG and SLG mesenchyme. The numbers of genes expressed over onefold in the PG and SLG mesenchyme were found to be 5247 and 5600 respectively. On limiting the fold-change cut off value over 1.5 folds, only 214 and 137 genes were expressed over 1.5 folds in the PG and the SLG mesenchyme respectively. Our findings suggest that differential expression patterns of the mesenchymal signaling molecules are involved in fate determination of the salivary acinar cell types during mouse embryogenesis. In the near future, functional evaluation of the candidate genes will be performed using gain- and loss-of-function mutation studies during in vitro organ cultivation.

Growth response of branches to variation in the intra- and interbranch supply of photosynthate

Autonomy of mid-crown branches in supply and utilization of carbohydrates is tested using a series of defoliation and shade treatments on young loblolly pine trees (Pinus taeda L.). The response of branch extension to variation in the intra- and interbranch supply of carbohydrate was inferred in young loblolly pine trees (Pinus taeda L.). A series of defoliation and shading treatments were designed and applied on selected branches, such that the extension of their terminal buds would depend on carbohydrate stored in the target branch, and carbohydrate imported from the stem or neighboring branches. The potential carbohydrate import from neighboring branches was also reduced by defoliation or shading of branches immediately above and immediately below the target branch. All combinations of branch treatments were analyzed to suppose the net effect of carbohydrate supply and source on branch extension. Both defoliation and shading of target branches significantly reduced growth in length and diameter of target branches as compared to the control. If imported carbohydrate compensated measurably for the loss of photosynthetic potential in the target branch, then extension of treated branches would have been longer than recorded when the neighboring branches were not treated and perhaps shorter when the neighboring branches were defoliated or shaded compared to the control. Neither was the case, however, because treatments on the neighboring branches had no significant effect on extension of the target branch. The results of this study provide additional support to the theory that branches within the crown are autonomous. These results, however, do not always suggest that branches do not import carbohydrates from the stem. A companion study found significant reductions in stem diameter of the internodes adjacent to defoliated or shaded branches.

Postnatal exposure to a glyphosate-based herbicide modifies mammary gland growth and development in Wistar male rats

Our aim was to evaluate whether postnatal exposure to a glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) modifies mammary gland development in pre- and post-pubertal male rats. From postnatal day 1 (PND1) to PND7, male rats were injected subcutaneously every 48 h with either saline solution (vehicle) or 2 mg GBH/kg·bw. On PND21 and PND60, mammary gland and blood samples were collected. Estradiol (E2) and testosterone (T) serum levels, mammary gland histology, collagen fiber organization, mast cell infiltration, proliferation index, and estrogen (ESR1) and androgen receptor (AR) expression levels were evaluated. At PND21, GBH-exposed male rats exhibited greater development of the mammary gland with increased stromal collagen organization and terminal end buds (TEBs) compared to control rats. At PND60, the number of TEBs remained high and was accompanied by an increase in mast cell infiltration, proliferation and ESR1 expression in GBH-exposed male rats. In contrast, no effects were observed in E2 and T serum levels and AR expression in both days studied. Our results showed that a postnatal subacute treatment with GBH induces endocrine-disrupting effects in the male mammary gland in vivo, altering its normal development.

Psychosocial Stress Exposure Disrupts Mammary Gland Development.

Exposure to psychosocial stressors and ensuing stress physiology have been associated with spontaneous invasive mammary tumors in the Sprague-Dawley rat model of human breast cancer. Mammary gland (MG) development is a time when physiologic and environmental exposures influence breast cancer risk. However, the effect of psychosocial stress exposure on MG development remains unknown. Here, in the first comprehensive longitudinal study of MG development in nulliparous female rats (from puberty through young adulthood; 8-25 wks of age), we quantify the spatial gradient of differentiation within the MG of socially stressed (isolated) and control (grouped) rats. We then demonstrate that social isolation increased stress reactivity to everyday stressors, resulting in downregulation of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression in the MG epithelium. Surprisingly, given that chemical carcinogens increase MG cancer risk by preventing normal terminal end bud (TEB) differentiation, chronic isolation stress did not alter TEBs. Instead, isolation blunted MG growth and alveolobular differentiation and reduced epithelial cell proliferation in these structures. Social isolation also enhanced corpora luteal progesterone at all ages but reduced estrogenization only in early adulthood, a pattern that precludes modulated ovarian function as a sufficient mechanism for the effects of isolation on MG development. This longitudinal study of natural variation provides an integrated view of MG development and the importance of increased GR activation in nulliparous ductal growth and alveolobular differentiation. Thus, social isolation and its physiological sequelae disrupt MG growth and differentiation and suggest a contribution of stress exposure during puberty and young adulthood to the previously observed increase in invasive MG cancer observed in chronically socially-isolated adult Sprague-Dawley rats.

First record of Fergusonina (Diptera: Fergusoninidae) and associated Fergusobia (Tylenchida: Neotylenchidae) forming galls on Leptospermum (Myrtaceae) in Australia, with descriptions of new species

A new species of fly, Fergusonina madidum Taylor sp.n. (Diptera: Fergusoninidae) from Leptospermum madidum A.R. Bean in far north Queensland and a new species of nematode, Fergusobia leptospermum Davies sp.n. (Tylenchida: Neotylenchidae) from L. laevigatum (Gaertn.) F. Muell. in southern Victoria, Australia are described. These represent the first species of the Fergusonina fly/Fergusobia nematode mutualism to be described from the genus Leptospermum (Myrtaceae). Fergusonina madidum sp.n. forms lateral and terminal multilocular shoot bud galls enclosed in subterminal leaflets. It can be distinguished from all other species of Fergusonina by the lack of dorsal setae on abdominal segment 7 of the female. Unlike most described species of Fergusonina it also lacks the posterior cross vein m-cu in the wing. It shares this character with F. giblindavisi Taylor and F. thomasi Taylor from flower bud galls on Corymbia, but both these species are large and abdominal segment 7 of females is densely setose. Its larva is unknown but from the morphology of puparia the dorsal shield comprises 3 broad transverse bands comprising lateral rows of raised ridge-like sclerotised spicules. Its associated species of nematode is not known. Fergusobia leptospermum sp.n. is associated with cryptic lateral and terminal usually unilocular shoot bud galls. It is characterised by the combination of an open to tight C-shaped parthenogenetic female having a small ‘a’ ratio, with a short but sturdy stylet, flat anterior end; huge dorsal pharyngeal gland, reproductive system with a relatively long uterus, and a sub-conoid tail with a broadly rounded tip; a C-shaped infective female with an almost hemispherical tail tip which may or may not be ventrally hooked; and an open C-shaped male with angular spicules and peloderan bursa arising near the anterior end, and a relatively long (c’ = 2.2–3.2) sub-conoid tail with a bluntly to broadly rounded tip. Its status as a distinct species is confirmed by molecular analyses. Its associated species of fly is known only from several larvae and a puparium, and remains undescribed. The dorsal shield of this Fergusonina species comprises 7 broad bands, the first six having heavily sclerotised raised ridges and the seventh with a medial field of weak spicules. The widely separated collection localities, together with the large number of species in Leptospermum suggest that the mutualism is likely to be speciose and occupy a broad geographic range on this host.

Heat unit accumulation and inflorescence and fruit development in ‘Ubá’ mango trees grown in Visconde do Rio Branco-MG

Abstract There are little information in the scientific literature on flowering and fruiting of ‘Ubá’ mango trees. These information enables to know the proportion of hermaphrodite flowers in inflorescence, fruit set percentage and developmental stages of the fruit. In this study evaluations on inflorescence and fruit development of the ‘Ubá’ mango tree (Mangifera indica L.) were carried out, as well as the determination of the required number of heat units for full fruit development. Thirty branches whose terminal buds were swollen were selected from five mango trees. With the aid of a camera and a caliper, the panicle and fruit development were evaluated weekly until full fruit development. A digital thermometer was used to record ambient temperatures during fruit development in order to estimate the number of heat units required for complete development of the fruits. Male and hermaphrodite flowers of the panicles were also identified and counted. The developmental cycle of ‘Ubá’ mango from the beginning of apical bud swelling to commercial harvest of the fruit lasted 168 days in 2011 and 154 days in 2012. The number of hermaphrodite flowers and the percentage of fruit set in the inflorescence in 2011 were 32.3 and 0.066%, respectively; and 122.1 and 0.099% in 2012, respectively. There was accumulation of 3,173 heat units from flower bud swelling to full development of the ‘Ubá’ mangoes.

Variations in leaf growth parameters within the tree structure of adult Coffea arabica in relation to seasonal growth, water availability and air carbon dioxide concentration.

Dynamics in branch and leaf growth parameters, such as the phyllochron, duration of leaf expansion, leaf life span and bud mortality, determine tree architecture and canopy foliage distribution. We aimed to estimate leaf growth parameters in adult Arabica coffee plants based on leaf supporter axis order and position along the vertical profile, considering their modifications related to seasonal growth, air [CO2] and water availability. Growth and mortality of leaves and terminal buds of adult Arabica coffee trees were followed in two independent field experiments in two sub-tropical climate regions of Brazil, Londrina-PR (Cfa) and Jaguariúna-SP (Cwa). In the Cwa climate, coffee trees were grown under a FACE (free air CO2 enrichment) facility, where half of those had been irrigated. Plants were observed at a 15-30 d frequency for 1 year. Leaf growth parameters were estimated on five axes orders and expressed as functions of accumulated thermal time (°Cd per leaf). The phyllochron and duration of leaf expansion increased with axis order, from the seond to the fourth. The phyllochron and life span during the reduced vegetative seasonal growth were greater than during active growth. It took more thermal time for leaves from the first- to fourth-order axes to expand their blades under irrigation compared with rainfed conditions. The compensation effects of high [CO2] for low water availability were observed on leaf retention on the second and third axes orders, and duration of leaf expansion on the first- and fourth-order axes. The second-degree polynomials modelled leaf growth parameter distribution in the vertical tree profile, and linear regressions modelled the proportion of terminal bud mortality. Leaf growth parameters in coffee plants were determined by axis order. The duration of leaf expansion contributed to phyllochron determination. Leaf growth parameters varied according the position of the axis supporter along the vertical profile, suggesting an effect of axes age and micro-environmental light modulations.

Transcription factor compensation during mammary gland development in E2F knockout mice.

The E2F transcription factors control key elements of development, including mammary gland branching morphogenesis, with several E2Fs playing essential roles. Additional prior data has demonstrated that loss of individual E2Fs can be compensated by other E2F family members, but this has not been tested in a mammary gland developmental context. Here we have explored the role of the E2Fs and their ability to functionally compensate for each other during mammary gland development. Using gene expression from terminal end buds and chromatin immunoprecipitation data for E2F1, E2F2 and E2F3, we noted both overlapping and unique mammary development genes regulated by each of the E2Fs. Based on our computational findings and the fact that E2Fs share a common binding motif, we hypothesized that E2F transcription factors would compensate for each other during mammary development and function. To test this hypothesis, we generated RNA from E2F1-/-, E2F2-/- and E2F3+/- mouse mammary glands. QRT-PCR on mammary glands during pregnancy demonstrated increases in E2F2 and E2F3a in the E2F1-/- mice and an increase in E2F2 levels in E2F3+/- mice. During lactation we noted that E2F3b transcript levels were increased in the E2F2-/- mice. Given that E2Fs have previously been noted to have the most striking effects on development during puberty, we hypothesized that loss of individual E2Fs would be compensated for at that time. Double mutant mice were generated and compared with the single knockouts. Loss of both E2F1 and E2F2 revealed a more striking phenotype than either knockout alone, indicating that E2F2 was compensating for E2F1 loss. Interestingly, while E2F2 was not able to functionally compensate for E2F3+/- during mammary outgrowth, increased E2F2 expression was observed in E2F3+/- mammary glands during pregnancy day 14.5 and lactation day 5. Together, these findings illustrate the specificity of E2F family members to compensate during development of the mammary gland.

Day Extension with Far-Red Light Enhances Growth of Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hooker) Nuttall) Seedlings

Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hooker) Nuttall), which is native to western North America, is of considerable interest for Christmas tree production in northern Europe. Seedlings are usually grown from seeds under combined nursery greenhouse/outdoors conditions, but commonly show early growth cessation in the nursery, resulting in small plants for field transplanting. This increases the production time and makes the seedlings vulnerable to stressors at the planting site. Day extension with far-red (FR) light was shown to enhance elongation and delay bud set in seedlings of some woody species, but such information is limited for Abies. Here, we investigated the effects of day extension with FR, red (R), different R:FR-ratios or blue (B) light from light emitting diodes on subalpine fir seedlings grown at different temperatures. Day extension with FR or combined R-FR light, in contrast to R or B light, increased shoot elongation significantly as compared to short days without day extension, often with more growth at 18 °C than 24 °C. The FR treatments delayed terminal bud development, although bud set was not completely prevented. These results demonstrate that larger seedlings of subalpine fir seedlings for Christmas tree production can be obtained by employing day extension with FR or combined R:FR light, preferably under cool temperature.

Bioactivities, Characterization, and Therapeutic Uses of Dracaena cinnabari

Young specimen of Dracaena cinnabari in the Koko Crater Botanical Garden, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States The dragon blood tree has a unique and strange appearance, with an "upturned, densely packed crown having the shape of an uprightly held umbrella". This evergreen species is named after its dark red resin, which is known as "dragon's blood". Its leaves are found only at the end of its youngest branches; its leaves are all shed every 3 or 4 years before new leaves simultaneously mature. Branching tends to occur when the growth of the terminal bud is stopped, due to either flowering or traumatic events (e.g. herbivory). The trees can be harvested for their crimson red resin, called dragon's blood, which was highly prized in the ancient world and is still used today. Dragon's blood is used as a stimulant and abortifacient. The root yields a gum-resin, used in gargle water as a stimulant, astringent and in toothpaste. The root is used in rheumatism, the leaves are a carminative. The local inhabitants of the city in the Socotra Island use the dragon's blood resin as a cure-all. They use it in general wound healing, as a coagulant, cure for diarrhea, for dysentery diseases, for lowering fevers. It is also taken for ulcers in the mouth, throat, intestines and stomach.

Role of the ERp57 protein (1,25D3-MARRS receptor) in murine mammary gland growth and development

The protein disulfide isomerase ERp57 (GRp58/PDIA3/1,25D3-MARRS) has been implicated in a multitude of signaling pathways throughout the entire body. Most thoroughly studied for its protein-folding role, ERp57 has also been found to have multiple binding partners, and have significant effects on cellular growth. ERp57 has been studied n the context of several neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic conditions, and can be used as a prognosis marker in certain cancers. One role, as an alternate vitamin D binding receptor, has prompted research in tissues with known vitamin D activity, such as the intestine and bone. Vitamin D has been studied in relation to mammary gland growth and development, but it is not yet known if ERp57 plays an independent role in this tissue. In this study, ERp57 was knocked out in murine mammary gland epithelial cells of 30 4-week old mice. Several markers of mammary gland growth were measured, including number of terminal end buds (TEB), ductal coverage of the fat pad, and ductal extension. It was found the knockout animals had decreased numbers of TEBs (p = 0.019), and decreased ductal extension (p = 0.018) compared to wildtype animals, with no differences in gross body weight. Immunohistochemistry analysis of mammary glands showed ERp57 localized to the apical side of alveolar branches, and on leading edges of TEBs. These results provide further evidence for ERp57 functioning separately to the VDR, and further insights into the roles of ERp57.

FGF2-dependent mesenchyme and laminin-111 are niche factors in salivary gland organoids.

Epithelial progenitor cells are dependent upon a complex 3D niche to promote their proliferation and differentiation during development, which can be recapitulated in organoids. The specific requirements of the niche remain unclear for many cell types, including the proacinar cells that give rise to secretory acinar epithelial cells that produce saliva. Here, using ex vivo cultures of E16 primary mouse submandibular salivary gland epithelial cell clusters, we investigated the requirement for mesenchymal cells and other factors in producing salivary organoids in culture. Native E16 salivary mesenchyme, but not NIH3T3 cells or mesenchymal cell conditioned medium, supported robust protein expression of the progenitor marker Kit and the acinar/proacinar marker AQP5, with a requirement for FGF2 expression by the mesenchyme. Enriched salivary epithelial clusters that were grown in laminin-enriched basement membrane extract or laminin-111 together with exogenous FGF2, but not with EGF, underwent morphogenesis to form organoids that displayed robust expression of AQP5 in terminal buds. Knockdown of FGF2 in the mesenchyme or depletion of mesenchyme cells from the organoids significantly reduced AQP5 levels even in the presence of FGF2, suggesting a requirement for autocrine FGF2 signaling in the mesenchyme cells for AQP5 expression. We conclude that basement membrane proteins and mesenchyme cells function as niche factors in salivary organoids.

Identification and characterization of long noncoding RNA in Paulownia tomentosa treated with methyl methane sulfonate.

Paulownia is a tree native to China, with important ecological and economic value. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are known to play important roles in eukaryotic gene regulation. However, no lncRNAs have been reported in Paulownia so far. We performed RNA sequencing of two Paulownia tomentosa lncRNA libraries constructed from the terminal buds of normal untreated seedlings and 60mgL-1 MMS-treated seedlings, and obtained a total of 2531 putative lncRNAs. The average length of the lncRNA transcripts was much less than the average length of the mRNA transcripts in the P. tomentosa libraries. A few of the Paulownia lncRNAs were conserved among ten species tested. We identified seven lncRNAs as precursors of 13 known miRNAs, 15 lncRNAs may act as target mimics of 19 miRNAs, and 351 unique noncoding sequences belonging to 133 conserved lncRNA families. In addition, we identified 220 lncRNAs responsive to methyl methane sulfonate (MMS), including seven phytohormone-related lncRNAs and one lncRNAs involved in base excision repair. This is the first time that lncRNAs have been explored in Paulownia. The lncRNA data may also provide new insights into the MMS-response in P. tomentosa.

Prenatal Exposure to Unconventional Oil and Gas Operation Chemical Mixtures Altered Mammary Gland Development in Adult Female Mice

Unconventional oil and gas (UOG) operations, which combine hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and directional drilling, involve the use of hundreds of chemicals, including many with endocrine-disrupting properties. Two previous studies examined mice exposed during early development to a 23-chemical mixture of UOG compounds (UOG-MIX) commonly used or produced in the process. Both male and female offspring exposed prenatally to one or more doses of UOG-MIX displayed alterations to endocrine organ function and serum hormone concentrations. We hypothesized that prenatal UOG-MIX exposure would similarly disrupt development of the mouse mammary gland. Female C57Bl/6 mice were exposed to ~3, ~30, ~ 300, or ~3000 μg/kg/d UOG-MIX from gestational day 11 to birth. Although no effects were observed on the mammary glands of these females before puberty, in early adulthood, females exposed to 300 or 3000 μg/kg/d UOG-MIX developed more dense mammary epithelial ducts; females exposed to 3 μg/kg/d UOG-MIX had an altered ratio of apoptosis to proliferation in the mammary epithelium. Furthermore, adult females from all UOG-MIX-treated groups developed intraductal hyperplasia that resembled terminal end buds (i.e., highly proliferative structures typically seen at puberty). These results suggest that the mammary gland is sensitive to mixtures of chemicals used in UOG production at exposure levels that are environmentally relevant. The effect of these findings on the long-term health of the mammary gland, including its lactational capacity and its risk of cancer, should be evaluated in future studies.

The Relationship between Terminal Bud Death and Programmed Cell Death in Paulownia spp.

The Relationship between Terminal Bud Death and Programmed Cell Death in Paulownia spp.

Conditional knockout of N-Myc and STAT interactor disrupts normal mammary development and enhances metastatic ability of mammary tumors

The process of organ development requires a delicate balance between cellular plasticity and differentiation. This balance is disrupted in cancer initiation and progression. N-Myc and STAT interactor (NMI: human or Nmi: murine) has emerged as a relevant player in the etiology of breast cancer. However, a fundamental understanding of its relevance to normal mammary biology is lacking. To gain insight into its normal function in mammary gland, we generated a mammary-specific Nmi knockout mouse model. We observed that Nmi protein expression is induced in mammary epithelium at the onset of pregnancy, in luminal cells and persists throughout lactation. Nmi knockout results in a precocious alveolar phenotype. These alveoli exhibit an extensive presence of nuclear β-catenin and enhanced Wnt/β-catenin signaling. The Nmi knockout pubertal ductal tree shows enhanced invasion of the mammary fatpad and increased terminal end bud numbers. Tumors from Nmi null mammary epithelium show a significant enrichment of poorly differentiated cells with elevated stem/progenitor markers, active Wnt/β-catenin signaling, highly invasive morphology as well as, increased number of distant metastases. Our study demonstrates that Nmi has a distinct role in the differentiation process of mammary luminal epithelial cell compartment and developmental aberrations resulting from Nmi absence contribute to metastasis and demonstrates that aberration in normal developmental program can lead to metastatic disease, highlighting the contribution and importance of luminal progenitor cells in driving metastatic disease.

Relationship between morphological development and sex hormone receptor expression of mammary glands with age in male rats.

The aim of this study is to investigate the changes with age on morphology and sex hormone receptor expression in the mammary glands of male Sprague-Dawley rats, focusing on male-specific cells, “oxyphilic cells”, observed after sexual maturity. The mammary glands of male rats at 14, 21, 35, 50, 75 and 100 days old were examined by gross observation, microscopic observation using whole mount specimens, histological and immunohistochemical sections. Grossly, mammary glands showed brown color at 50–100 days old. In whole mount specimens, terminal end buds (TEBs) were observed at 14–50 days old and the number of TEBs was highest at 35 days old. Histologically, the male mammary glands contained small epithelial cells with scanty cytoplasm at 14–35 days old while ductal and lobular epithelial cells were changed into oxyphilic cells with abundant cytoplasm at 50–100 days old. Immunohistochemicaly, androgen receptor (AR), estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PgR) expressions were found in both mammary glands found at a young age and oxyphilic cells. In oxyphilic cells, AR expression was dominant compared to ER and PgR expressions and increased with age. From these results, the development at 50–100 days old might be strongly related to AR. Ultrastructural observation of oxyphilic cells confirmed a number of lipid droplets, deformed and/or enlarged mitochondria, lysosomes and peroxisomes in their cytoplasm.

Maternal exposure to an n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid diet decreases mammary cancer risk of female offspring in adulthood.

Maternal exposure to dietary factors during pregnancy influences the risk of many adult-onset diseases in the later life of offspring. Here, we investigated the effects of maternal n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) diet on breast cancer risk of female offspring. Pregnant C57BL/6J mice were fed a normal diet (control group), or a high-fat diet rich in safflower oil (SO), fish oil (FO) or flaxseed oil (FSO) (n = 10) throughout gestation and lactation. Their female offspring were fed an AIN-93G diet from weaning. Tumor incidences in offspring induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz[α]anthracene (DMBA) were higher in high-fat groups than in the control group, and were lower in FO and FSO groups than in the SO group. The plasma concentrations of 17β-estradiol (E2), in both pregnant dams and offspring, were significantly lower in FO and FSO groups compared with the SO group. The FO and FSO offspring showed delayed puberty onset, and their mammary glands contained decreased numbers of epithelial terminal end buds (TEBs, targets for malignant transformation) compared with SO offspring. Reduced cell proliferation and increased apoptosis in FO and FSO offspring were observed compared with SO offspring. In line with these changes, maternal exposure to FO promoted the expression of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) in p53 and apoptosis signaling pathways and inhibited that in NF-κB and Jak-STAT signaling pathways, while FSO promoted the expression of lncRNA in p53 signaling pathways and inhibited that in NF-κB, Jak-STAT and MAPK signaling pathways. In conclusion, maternal exposure to a high-fat diet rich in n-3 PUFAs, both marine- and plant-based, has a protective effect on mammary tumor risk of female offspring in later life.

Study the effect of Ca(NO3)24H2O on root initiation in notch no. 3, 4, 5, 6 of the 5th leaf of Bryophyllum.

The role of ages of leaf, the position of notch on the leaf, supplemented nutrients and growth regulators etc. on the initiation of adventitious roots and their subsequent growth in excised Bryophyllum leaves was investigated, notches of Bryophyllum leaf was the most important site for the initiation of adventitious roots. Adventitious roots were initiated from the notches when isolated leaves were placed on soil or sand sprayed with water frequently. The number of notches in a Bryophyllum leaf ranged between six to thirty-six but adventitious roots didn't develop equally on all the notches present. It might so happen that the root hormones present at the notches responsible for root initiation were not present in the notches in suitable concentrations other physiological conditions prevailing at the notches might also be responsible for root initiation. Depending on the interesting behaviour of Bryophyllum leaves, a study on the physiology of initiation of root and subsequent growth of those roots in 5th leaf particularly 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th notches in presence of externally supplied Chemicals like Ca (NO3)2 4H2O carried out. As various factors played major role in production of adventitious roots and buds in the notches, a preliminary screening was done to ascertain the most suitable leaf in regard to root initiation number of root produced per notch, length of each root time taken for root initiation, in the notches. Further it was thought essential to select the most suitable notch for early initiation of root production of maximum number of roots and the maximum growth of roots. During the course of the research, it was found. That in the young Bryophyllum plants the 5th leaf (counted from the apex toward the base, leaving the young terminal bud) showed early rooting, maximum number of roots and longest roots. Then could possibly be attributed to the most capable leaf.

Marine fish oil is more potent than plant-based n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the prevention of mammary tumors

Marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), have been shown to inhibit mammary carcinogenesis. However, evidence regarding plant-based α-linolenic acid (ALA), the major n-3 PUFA in the Western diet, remains equivocal. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of lifelong exposure to plant- or marine-derived n-3 PUFAs on pubertal mammary gland and tumor development in MMTV-neu(ndl)-YD5 mice. It is hypothesized that lifelong exposure to n-3 PUFA reduces terminal end buds during puberty leading to delayed tumor onset, volume and multiplicity. It is further hypothesized that plant-derived n-3 PUFAs will exert dose-dependent effects. Harems of MMTV-FVB males were bred with wild-type females and fed either a (1) 10% safflower (10% SF, n-6 PUFA, control), (2) 10% flaxseed (10% FS), (3) 7% safflower plus 3% flaxseed (3% FS) or (4) 7% safflower plus 3% menhaden (3% FO) diet. Female offspring were maintained on parental diets. Compared to SF, 10% FS and 3% FO reduced (P<.05) terminal end buds at 6 weeks and tumor volume and multiplicity at 20 weeks. A dose-dependent reduction of tumor volume and multiplicity was observed in mice fed 3% and 10% FS. Antitumorigenic effects were associated with altered HER2, pHER-2, pAkt and Ki-67 protein expression. Compared to 10% SF, 3% FO significantly down-regulated expression of genes involved in eicosanoid synthesis and inflammation. From this, it can be estimated that ALA was 1/8 as potent as EPA+DHA. Thus, marine-derived n-3 PUFAs have greater potency versus plant-based n-3 PUFAs.