Term Milk Research Articles

Clay minerals as adsorbents of aflatoxin M1 from contaminated milk and effects on milk quality

The capacity of clays to remove or attenuate the contamination of aflatoxin M1 in bovine milk was studied, while considering the effects of these clays on the nutritional properties of the milk (in terms of protein, fat and lactose). To make the experimental results transferable to practical use, only clays available from the market were tested, and a very simple clay–milk interaction procedure was used. A preliminary test was developed to compare the adsorption behaviour of two clays, a kaolin and a bentonite, at variable clay–milk ratios and to trace the variations in the protein, fat and lactose contents. Then, only bentonites were selected for additional study.The detoxification capacity of the bentonites used was variable but still very efficient: contaminated bovine milk (up to approximately 80ng/L) was purified to safe levels (50ng/L for adults and 25ng/L for lactants) with moderate alteration of the nutritional properties of the milk. Moreover, the amount of bentonite residue in the purified milk was very low (0.4%). The kaolin was less adsorptive than the bentonite but still able to decrease the aflatoxin M1 within legal limits and was better at maintaining the nutritional properties of the milk. The protein is more sensitive to clay adsorption than are fat and lactose, and there was a decrease in protein in the treated milk with increases in the ratio of clay to milk.Among the studied samples, a saponite-rich bentonite showed the highest adsorbent capacity, in agreement with theoretical considerations regarding higher cell surface areas (available for AFM1) and higher surface hydrophobicity of saponite. Analyses of isothermal adsorption in water using the two more effective bentonites were also performed.The data collected indicate an effective and safe use of clays in the detoxification of milk (and dairy products) contaminated with aflatoxin M1.

Amino acid profiles in term and preterm human milk through lactation: a systematic review.

Amino acid profile is a key aspect of human milk (HM) protein quality. We report a systematic review of total amino acid (TAA) and free amino acid (FAA) profiles, in term and preterm HM derived from 13 and 19 countries, respectively. Of the 83 studies that were critically reviewed, 26 studies with 3774 subjects were summarized for TAA profiles, while 22 studies with 4747 subjects were reviewed for FAA. Effects of gestational age, lactation stage, and geographical region were analyzed by Analysis of Variance. Data on total nitrogen (TN) and TAA composition revealed general inter-study consistency, whereas FAA concentrations varied among studies. TN and all TAA declined in the first two months of lactation and then remained relatively unchanged. In contrast, the FAA glutamic acid and glutamine increased, peaked around three to six months, and then declined. Some significant differences were observed for TAA and FAA, based on gestational age and region. Most regional TAA and FAA data were derived from Asia and Europe, while information from Africa was scant. This systematic review represents a useful evaluation of the amino acid composition of human milk, which is valuable for the assessment of protein quality of breast milk substitutes.

Polyamine levels in breast milk are associated with mothers' dietary intake and are higher in preterm than full‐term human milk and formulas

Polyamine intake from milk is considered essential for post-natal maturation of the immune system and small intestine. The present study aimed to determine polyamine content in human milk after preterm delivery and the association with mothers' dietary intake. In comparison, the polyamine levels were compared with those in term breast milk and some corresponding formulas. Transitional breast milk was collected from 40 mothers delivering after 24-36 weeks of gestation, and from 12 mothers delivering after full term. Food intake was assessed in mothers delivering preterm babies using a 3-day diary. Polyamines were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The dietary intake of polyamines was significantly associated with breast milk content but weaker for spermine than for spermidine and putrescine. Total polyamine level was higher in preterm than term milk and lower in the corresponding formulas. Putrescine, spermidine and spermine contents [mean (SEM)] in preterm milk were 165.6 (25), 615.5 (80) and 167.7 (16) nmol dL⁻¹, respectively, with the levels of putrescine and spermidine being 50% and 25% higher than in term milk. The content of spermine did not differ. Dietary intake of polyamines has an impact on the content in breast milk. The difference between human milk after preterm and term delivery might be considered when using donor human milk for preterm infants. The corresponding formulas had lower contents. Further studies are important for determining the relationship between tissue growth and maturation and optimal intake.

Peptidome analysis of human skim milk in term and preterm milk

The abundant proteins in human milk have been well characterized and are known to provide nutritional, protective, and developmental advantages to both term and preterm infants. Due to the difficulties associated with detection technology of the peptides, the expression of the peptides present in human milk is not known widely. In recent years, peptidome analysis has received increasing attention. In this report, the analysis of endogenous peptides in human milk was done by mass spectrometry. A method was also developed by our researchers, which can be used in the extraction of peptide from human milk. Analysis of the extracts by LC–MS/MS resulted in the detection of 1000–3000Da peptide-like features. Out of these, 419 peptides were identified by MS/MS. The identified peptides were found to originate from 34 proteins, of which several have been reported. Analysis of the peptides’ cleavage sites showed that the peptides are cleaved with regulations. This may reflect the protease activity and distribution in human body, and also represent the biological state of the tissue and provide a fresh source for biomarker discovery. Isotope dimethyl labeling analysis was also used to test the effects of premature delivery on milk protein composition in this study. Differences in peptides expression between breast milk in term milk (38–41weeks gestation) and preterm milk (28–32weeks gestation) were investigated in this study. 41 Peptides in these two groups were found expressed differently. 23 Peptides were present at higher levels in preterm milk, and 18 were present at higher levels in term milk.

Preterm human milk contains a large pool of latent TGF-β, which can be activated by exogenous neuraminidase

Human milk contains substantial amounts of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, particularly the isoform TGF-β2. We previously showed in preclinical models that enterally administered TGF-β2 can protect against necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), an inflammatory bowel necrosis of premature infants. In this study we hypothesized that premature infants remain at higher risk of NEC than full-term infants, even when they receive their own mother's milk, because preterm human milk contains less bioactive TGF-β than full-term milk. Our objective was to compare TGF-β bioactivity in preterm vs. full-term milk and identify factors that activate milk-borne TGF-β. Mothers who delivered between 23 0/7 and 31 6/7 wk or at ≥37 wk of gestation provided milk samples at serial time points. TGF-β bioactivity and NF-κB signaling were measured using specific reporter cells and in murine intestinal tissue explants. TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3, and various TGF-β activators were measured by real-time PCR, enzyme immunoassays, or established enzymatic activity assays. Preterm human milk showed minimal TGF-β bioactivity in the native state but contained a large pool of latent TGF-β. TGF-β2 was the predominant isoform of TGF-β in preterm milk. Using a combination of several in vitro and ex vivo models, we show that neuraminidase is a key regulator of TGF-β bioactivity in human milk. Finally, we show that addition of bacterial neuraminidase to preterm human milk increased TGF-β bioactivity. Preterm milk contains large quantities of TGF-β, but most of it is in an inactive state. Addition of neuraminidase can increase TGF-β bioactivity in preterm milk and enhance its anti-inflammatory effects.

Multiplexing of Human Preterm and Term Milk Cytokines

The first objective was to use an 18‐plex cytokine panel to compare preterm and term colostrum collected at day 1 postpartum. After observing matrix effects, we worked to develop a milk assay matrix for Luminex and MagPix technologies. After matrix development proved satisfactory, we have progressed to a longitudinal study of immunobiology of milk from 100 mothers of Very Low Birth Weight (VLBW) infants.We multiplexed milk whey using bead based methods and performed linear spiking experiments. We used a variety of matrix solutions and these matrices did not give reliable results. When we used serum matrix for controls and standards, and added serum matrix to milk samples, the spiking experiments were successful and showed linearity.Based on our preliminary experiments on preterm and term colostrum and the matrix solution, we designed a plex of 8 cytokines that differed in preterm compared to term colostrum (IL‐4, IL‐6, IL‐8, IL‐10, IP‐10, MIP‐1α, IP‐10, MCP‐1, and TNFα). We are now measuring milk cytokines from 100 mothers of VLBW infants across 6 weeks of the NICU stay. From these data we will describe the trajectory of human milk immunobiology over the first six weeks postpartum.Multiplexing provides excellent screening for important immune molecules. However there are no plexes specifically for milk. We have developed an assay for multiplexing using serum matrix that is sensitive and reliable.Funded by 5R21NR013094–02

Polyamines in human breast milk for preterm and term infants

Maternal milk is the first source of exogenous polyamines for the newborn. Polyamines modulate gut maturation in neonates, but no studies are available on polyamine concentration in human milk of preterm babies, even though they could be important for their immature gut. The present study aimed to determine polyamine concentration in human breast milk of mothers with preterm or term infants during the first month of lactation. Human milk samples were obtained during the first month of lactation from twenty-seven mothers with preterm babies and twelve mothers with babies born at term. The polyamine concentration in human milk was quantified by HPLC. During the first month of lactation, the total polyamine concentration was significantly higher in preterm milk than in term milk samples (7590 (SD 4990) v. 4660 (SD 4830) nmol/l, respectively (P ¼ 0·034)), as well as individual polyamine concentrations. Polyamine concentration in mature milk for preterm babies was significantly higher than that in mature milk for babies at term, and a similar trend was observed in colostrum and transition human milk. The spermidine/spermine ratio was higher in transition milk in preterm v. term samples, while in mature milk, the ratio was significantly lower in preterm than in term babies. In conclusion, the polyamine concentration was significantly higher in human milk for preterm than for term infants. This and the different spermidine/spermine ratios could influence the gut development of premature babies.

Incorporation of Listeria monocytogenes strains in raw milk biofilms

Biofilms develop successively on devices of milk production without sufficient cleaning and originate from the microbial community of raw milk. The established biofilm matrices enable incorporation of pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes, which can cause a continuous contamination of food processing plants. L. monocytogenes is frequently found in raw milk and non-pasteurized raw milk products and as part of a biofilm community in milk meters and bulk milk tanks. The aim of this study was to analyze whether different L. monocytogenes strains are interacting with the microbial community of raw milk in terms of biofilm formation in the same manner, and to identify at which stage of biofilm formation a selected L. monocytogenes strain settles best. Bacterial community structure and composition of biofilms were analyzed by a cloning and sequencing approach and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (T-RFLP) based on the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. The chemical composition of biofilms was analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), while settled L. monocytogenes cells were quantified by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Addition of individual L. monocytogenes strains to raw milk caused significant shifts in the biofilm biomass, in the chemical as well as in the bacterial community composition. Biofilm formation and attachment of L. monocytogenes cells were not serotype but strain specific. However, the added L. monocytogenes strains were not abundant since mainly members of the genera Citrobacter and Lactococcus dominated the bacterial biofilm community. Overall, added L. monocytogenes strains led to a highly competitive interaction with the raw milk community and triggered alterations in biofilm formation.

Longitudinal analysis of protein glycosylation and β-casein phosphorylation in term and preterm human milk during the first 2 months of lactation

Human milk proteins provide term and preterm infants with both nutrition and protection. The objective of the present study was to examine longitudinal changes in the protein composition of term and preterm milk during the first 2 months of lactation, focusing on protein phosphorylation and glycosylation. Using gel electrophoresis, the relative concentration and glycosylation status of lactoferrin, secretory Ig A, β-casein, α-lactalbumin, serum albumin, bile salt-stimulated lipase, xanthine oxidoreductase, tenascin and macrophage mannose receptor 1 were measured in milk collected on days 7, 10, 14, 18, 21, 28 and 60 postpartum from preterm mothers (28-32 weeks gestation, n 17). The phosphorylation status of β-casein was also investigated. To determine if these variables differ in term and preterm milk, samples from term mothers (38-41 weeks gestation, n 8) collected on days 7, 14 and 30 of lactation were also analysed. The concentration of the abundant milk proteins decreased during lactation in term and preterm milk (P <0·05). No difference in protein glycosylation was observed, except for the glycoproteins serum albumin and tenascin. The phosphorylation of β-casein varied significantly between term and preterm milk. Further investigation is required to determine whether these modifications affect protein function and are clinically important to preterm infants.

Lacto-N-Tetraose, Fucosylation, and Secretor Status Are Highly Variable in Human Milk Oligosaccharides From Women Delivering Preterm

Breast milk is the ideal nutrition for term infants but must be supplemented to provide adequate growth for most premature infants. Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are remarkably abundant and diverse in breast milk and yet provide no nutritive value to the infant. HMOs appear to have at least two major functions: prebiotic activity (stimulation of the growth of commensal bacteria in the gut) and protection against pathogens. Investigations of HMOs in milk from women delivering preterm have been limited. We present the first detailed mass spectrometric analysis of the fucosylation and sialylation in HMOs in serial specimens of milk from 15 women delivering preterm and 7 women delivering at term using nanohigh performance liquid chromatography chip/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. A mixed-effects model with Levene's test was used for the statistical analyses. We find that lacto-N-tetraose, a core HMO, is both more abundant and more highly variable in the milk of women delivering preterm. Furthermore, fucosylation in preterm milk is not as well regulated as in term milk, resulting in higher within and between mother variation in women delivering preterm vs term. Of particular clinical interest, the α1,2-linked fucosylated oligosaccharide 2'-fucosyllactose, an indicator of secretor status, is not consistently present across lactation of several mothers that delivered preterm. The immaturity of HMO production does not appear to resolve over the time of lactation and may have relevance to the susceptibility of premature infants to necrotizing enterocolitis, late onset sepsis, and related neurodevelopmental impairments.

Effect of probiotic-fermented, genetically modified soy milk on hypercholesterolemia in hamsters

The rapid progress of biotechnology and molecular biology has led to genetically modified (GM) crops becoming a part of agricultural production. There are concerns that the issues of the functional ingredients in GM products have not been addressed, such as the bioactivities of soy proteins and isoflavones. This study aimed to investigate the effects of probiotic-fermented GM soy milk on hypercholesterolemia, and atherosclerotic risks in hamsters. One hundred and twelve male Golden Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) were randomly assigned into 14 groups of 8 animals each. Normal- and high-cholesterol experimental diets were supplemented with GM or non-GM soy milk with or without probiotic-fermentation for 8 weeks. Serum and fecal lipid levels were measured. Moreover, aortic plaque in artery were stained, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance content, super oxide dismutase activity and caralase activity were determined. GM or non-GM soy milk with or without probiotic-fermentation significantly decreased (p < 0.05) serum TC levels, compared with a high-cholesterol diet group. TC levels in hamsters fed GM soy milk were not significantly different from TC levels in the non-GM soy milk group (p>0.05). GM soy milk groups can reduce risk of developing atherosclerosis through lowered oxidative stress and reduced atherosclerotic plaque formation in the aorta, and are thus at least equivalent to non-GM soy milk. GM soy milk with or without probiotic-fermentation can improve hypercholesterolemia and reduce the risk of atherosclerosis, and is considered substantially equivalent to non-GM soy milk in terms of these bioactive functions.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) and Soluble VEGF Receptor 1 (sFlt-1) Levels in Early and Mature Human Milk from Mothers of Preterm versus Term Infants

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors regulate angiogenesis (formation of blood vessels). The soluble VEGF receptor 1 (sFlt-1) binds VEGF as a potent antagonist. The objective of this study was to compare VEGF and sFlt-1 levels in milk from mothers of preterm (n = 50) versus term (n = 49) infants in a longitudinal study. Milk samples were collected on days 3 and 28 of lactation. Vascular endothelial growth factor and sFlt-1 were quantified by sandwich-type enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Vascular endothelial growth factor and sFlt-1 were found in high concentrations in early milk (lactation day 3) from mothers of preterm and term infants and were lower in mature milk (lactation day 28). On day 3, median VEGF concentration was lower in preterm than in term milk (37.1 vs 53.9 ng/mL, P < .01). Otherwise, VEGF (day 28) and sFlt-1 (days 3 and 28) did not differ in preterm versus term milk. It was shown for the first time that sFlt-1 is present in human milk. Early human milk contains high concentrations of VEGF and sFlt-1, which decrease over the course of lactation.

Efek Pemberian Temu Putih (Curcuma zedoaria) terhadap Kualitas Susu Sapi Perah Penderita Mastitis Subklinis

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of Curcuma Zedoaria on milk composition of sub-clinical mastitis dairy cow . Concentrate was prepared by mixing level of curcuma zedoaria powder. Nine heads of sub-clinical mastitis dairy cows were divided into three groups. The first group were as a control, the second group were treated with 0.02% of Curcuma zedoaria according to body weight , and likewise the third group were treated 0.04% of Curcuma zedoaria . Data were analyzed with Variance analysis in a completely randomized design. The result showed that there were no significant effect of using different levels of Curcuma Zeoaria. The quality of milk in term of fat, protein, dry matter were satisfied for the quality standard of milk .

Cochrane Review: Pacifier use versus no pacifier use in breastfeeding term infants for increasing duration of breastfeeding

AbstractBackgroundTo successfully initiate and maintain breastfeeding for a longer duration, the World Health Organization's Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding recommends total avoidance of artificial teats or pacifiers for breastfeeding infants. Offering the pacifier instead of the breast to calm the infant may lead to less frequent episodes of breastfeeding and as a consequence may reduce breast milk production and shorten duration of breastfeeding; however, this remains unclear.ObjectivesTo assess the effect of pacifier use versus no pacifier use in healthy full‐term newborns whose mothers have initiated breastfeeding and intend to exclusively breastfeed, on the duration of breastfeeding, other breastfeeding outcomes and infant health.Search methodsWe searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (31 December 2010).Selection criteriaRandomised and quasi‐randomised controlled trials comparing pacifier use versus no pacifier use in healthy full‐term newborns who have initiated breastfeeding regardless of whether they were born at home or in the hospital.Data collection and analysisTwo authors independently assessed the studies for inclusion, assessed risk of bias and carried out data extraction.Main resultsWe found three trials (involving 1915 babies) for inclusion in the review but have included only two trials (involving 1302 healthy full‐term breastfeeding infants) in the analysis. Meta‐analysis of the two combined studies showed that pacifier use in healthy breastfeeding infants had no significant effect on the proportion of infants exclusively breastfed at three months (risk ratio (RR) 1.00; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.95 to 1.06), and at four months of age (RR 0.99; 95% CI 0.92 to 1.06) and also had no effect on the proportion of infants partially breastfed at three months (RR 1.00; 95% CI 0.97 to 1.02), and at 4 months of age (RR 1.01; 95% CI 0.98 to 1.03).Authors' conclusionsPacifier use in healthy term breastfeeding infants, started from birth or after lactation is established, did not significantly affect the prevalence or duration of exclusive and partial breastfeeding up to four months of age. However, evidence to assess the short‐term breastfeeding difficulties faced by mothers and long‐term effect of pacifiers on infants' health is lacking.Plain Language SummaryEffect of pacifier use on duration of breastfeeding in full‐term infantsBreast milk is superior to other baby foods in providing balanced nutrition and protection against allergy and infection to newborns. Breastfeeding is recommended by the World Health Organization, exclusively in the first six months and then as a dietary supplement. Breastmilk production and supply are maintained by frequent suckling of the breast and nipple stimulation. A pacifier is a non‐nutritive sucking device used to calm an infant that has become a cultural norm in many parts of the world. However there is a widespread belief that pacifiers may interfere with breast milk production and lead to discontinuation of breastfeeding.Our review concluded that for mothers who are motivated to breastfeed their infants, pacifier use before or after breastfeeding was established did not significantly affect the prevalence or duration of exclusive and partial breastfeeding up to four months of age. The review provided moderate evidence from three randomised controlled trials (involving 1915 babies) comparing pacifier use and no pacifier use by healthy, full‐term breastfeeding infants; two of the trials (1302 babies) were included in the analysis. However, there is a widespread belief that pacifiers may interfere with breast milk production and lead to discontinuation of breastfeeding.

Changes in Quality and Nutritional Parameters During Refrigerated Storage of an Orange Juice–Milk Beverage Treated by Equivalent Thermal and Non-thermal Processes for Mild Pasteurization

The effects of high-pressure (HP) treatment (400 MPa at 42 °C for 5 min) and pulsed electric field (PEF) processing (25 kV/cm at 57 °C for 280 μs) on ascorbic acid, total carotenoids, total phenolic compounds and total antioxidant capacity (TEAC and ORAC) of an orange juice–milk (OJ-M) beverage along the storage time at 4 °C were compared with a conventional heat preservation technology used in industry (90 °C for 15 s). During storage, ascorbic acid, total carotenoids and antioxidant capacity (TEAC) depleted with time regardless of the treatment applied. Instead, total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity measured by the ORAC method increased at the end of the storage. Non-thermal-treated beverage had less non-enzymatic browning than the thermally pasteurized one. There were no significant variations in the hidroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content of the HP- and PEF-treated OJ-M, whilst a significant increase was obtained after thermal treatment. During refrigerated storage, HMF was always below the maximum values established. The HP treatments reduced the L* value of the treated beverages immediately after processing and during refrigerated storage and induced an increase in total colour differences of beverages treated by HP compared with PEF and thermally processed orange juice–milk. Hence, alternative methods such as HP and PEF may give new opportunities to develop orange juice–milk with an equivalent shelf life to that of thermally treated orange juice mixed with milk in terms of microbial, physicochemical and nutritional characteristics.

Fatty acid compositions of preterm and term colostrum, transitional and mature milks in a sub-Saharan population with high fish intakes

BackgroundThere are no data on the fatty acid (FA) compositions of preterm and term milks for sub-Saharan African populations with advancing lactation. However, it is generally acknowledged that our ancestors evolved in sub-Saharan East-Africa, where they inhabited the land-water ecosystems. MethodsWe compared the FA-compositions of preterm (28–36 weeks) and term (37–42) colostrum (2–5 day), transitional (6–15) and mature (16–56) milks in rural African women with stable dietary habits and lifelong high freshwater fish intakes. ResultsFrom colostrum to mature milk: the median docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content decreased from 1.11 to 0.75; and arachidonic acid (AA) from 0.93 to 0.69g% in preterm milk. In term milk, DHA decreased from 0.81 to 0.53 and AA from 1.08 to 0.55g%. Medium-chain saturated-FA (MCSAFA) increased from 16.9 to 33.7, and 7.92–29.0g%, while mono-unsaturated FA (MUFA) decreased from 32.5 to 22.6, and 40.0–26.5g%, in preterm and term milk, respectively. Consistent with the literature, preterm colostrum contained higher DHA and MCSAFA, and lower MUFA compared to term colostrum. These differences vanished rapidly with advancing lactation. MUFA and MCSAFA were inversely related. ConclusionsThe presently found DHA in preterm colostrum and mature milks and AA in premature mature milk proved the highest reported in the literature so far, as derived from analysis with capillary GC-columns. We confirmed the much higher MCSAFA and lower MUFA contents in milk of rural African, compared to Westernized women. The milk FA composition of this traditional population might show us the FA composition on which our species evolved and consequently to which our genome has become adapted to optimally support (infant) health.

Proteome Mapping of Human Skim Milk Proteins in Term and Preterm Milk

The abundant proteins in human milk have been well characterized and are known to provide nutritional, protective, and developmental advantages to both term and preterm infants. However, relatively little is known about the expression of the low abundance proteins that are present in human milk because of the technical difficulties associated with their detection. We used a combination of electrophoretic techniques, ProteoMiner treatment, and two-dimensional liquid chromatography to examine the proteome of human skim milk expressed between 7 and 28 days postpartum by healthy term mothers and identified 415 in a pooled milk sample. Of these, 261 were found in human skim milk for the first time, greatly expanding our understanding of the human skim milk proteome. The majority of the proteins identified were involved in either the immune response (24%) or in cellular (28%) or protein (16%) metabolism. We also used iTRAQ analysis to examine the effects of premature delivery on milk protein composition. Differences in protein expression between pooled milk from mothers delivering at term (38-41 weeks gestation) and preterm (28-32 weeks gestation) were investigated, with 55 proteins found to be differentially expressed with at least 90% confidence. Twenty-eight proteins were present at higher levels in preterm milk, and 27 were present at higher levels in term milk.

The creamatocrit, fat and energy concentration in human milk produced by mothers of preterm and term infants

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the composition of breast milk which had been gathered from mothers for over first 2 weeks of lactation and to compare the changes in composition of preterm and term milk. Methods: A prospective, single center study was provided in Warsaw, Poland. The samples of breast milk from 22 mothers who had delivered prematurely and 39 mothers who had given birth to term infants were collected. The creamatocrit, energy and fat concentration were estimated in each participant’s breast milk sample twice a day (morning and night hours). Results: The lowest creamatocrit, calories and fat concentration was indicated in the preterm milk obtained in the morning (4.86%, 663.8 kcal/L and 33.6 g/L, respectively). The highest milk parameters were observed in the night samples of full-term milk and measured (9.6%, 919.7 kcal/L, and 60.7 g/L, respectively). No significant differences in analysed parameters were observed between preterm and full-term milk (p > 0.05). In summary, creamatocrit, calories and lipid concentration in breast milk shows the daily differences. Colostrum and mature milk from mothers of preterm neonates differed from colostum and mature milk from mothers of term neonates. They had lipid contents, creamatocrit level and calorific value.

Ghrelin and feeding behaviour in preterm infants

The importance of early life events in the development of metabolic diseases is well recognized. Early postnatal environment, including nutrition, is key to future health, and this is particularly true for preterm infants. It is important that these infants receive sufficient nutrients to prevent growth restriction and promote neurodevelopment, while minimizing predisposition to metabolic diseases later in life. Feeding habits are the fundamental elements of nutrition and are influenced by many factors, including personal and familial habits, socioeconomic status, and cultural environment. In the last decades, there has been an important scientific interest toward the comprehension of the molecular and neural mechanisms regulating appetite. In these networks, act many peptide hormones produced in brain or gut, among which ghrelin is important because of its action in the short-term regulation of food intake and the long-term regulation of body weight. Ghrelin stimulates appetite and plays a role in regulating feeding behaviour. Ghrelin levels vary from fetal life through to early adulthood, with the highest levels observed in the very early years. Cord ghrelin levels have been evaluated in term and preterm newborns and high ghrelin levels have been observed in small-for-gestational age newborns and in newborns with intrauterine growth restriction. Moreover, ghrelin has been detected in term and preterm human breast milk, suggesting that it may play a role in the development of neuroendocrine pathways regulating appetite and energy homeostasis in early life. However, more research is required to better define ghrelin's role in breast milk and on feeding behaviour.

"L'espoir qu'il existe un sein" (ordre du corps, pornographie, bioéthique)

The investigations into the complexity of the bios confi rm the insuffi ciency of the paradigms of contemporary bioethics. The author, starting from a presentation of the philosophical terms of nature/culture dualism (Moi and bios, that he supposes to be feminine), gives room to some hypothesis concerning bioethics on the dayafter-tomorrow. References are made to ethics of pornography, tenderness in legal anthropology, state and sexual power, incertitude and subjection, unconsciousness as a paradigm of the body parts energy, ending with a brief reconstruction of the female paradigm and the constituting role of milk in terms of animal subjectivity of the human.