Tempranillo Grapes Research Articles

Front-face fluorescence excitation-emission matrices in combination with three-way chemometrics for the discrimination and prediction of phenolic response to vineyard agronomic practices

Phenolic extracts from cv Tempranillo grapes subjected to water stress and irrigation treatment, both of them with high and low crop load, were analyzed by front-face fluorescence. Excitation-emission matrices (EEMs) were analyzed by means of unsupervised parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC), PARAFAC supervised by linear discriminant analysis, and discriminant unfolded partial least-squares. All algorithms allowed to differentiate between water stress and irrigation grape samples when the fluorescence maxima region of catechin and epicatechin, and resveratrol was considered. A central composite design was employed for the calibration of catechin, epicatechin and resveratrol. Resveratrol was quantified by U-PLS in both, irrigated and water stressed samples, and levels between 3.46 ± 0.22 and 4.67 ± 0.08 μg mL−1 and 2.43 ± 0.60 and 3.03 ± 0.10 μg mL−1, respectively, were found. PARAFAC only allowed the determination of the sum of catechin plus epicatechin (R2 = 0.9397). The determination of total catechin plus epicatechin by means of PARAFAC was successfully validated by liquid chromatography.

Effects on chlorophyll and carotenoid contents in different grape varieties (Vitis vinifera L.) after nitrogen and elicitor foliar applications to the vineyard

Photosynthetic pigments, including carotenoids are important secondary metabolites, which play a key role in photosynthesis. There is little information about the effects of nitrogen and elicitor applications on chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations in grapes. The aim of this work was therefore to study the effects of the foliar application of nitrogen sources and elicitors to Tempranillo, Garnacha and Graciano (Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines on chlorophyll and carotenoid contents. The results showed that β-carotene and lutein were the most abundant carotenoids in all the samples, ranging from 1336 and 227 to 7054 and 1382 μg/g, respectively. The applied treatments had greater impact on chlorophyll and carotenoid contents in Tempranillo grapes than in Graciano and Garnacha varieties. The content of chlorophyll was determined by the variety factor, while the concentration of carotenoids was influenced by the interaction of variety and treatment factors, depending on the type of foliar application.

Making natural sparkling wines with non-Saccharomyces yeasts

The usage of alternative non-Saccharomyces yeasts might provide desirable characteristics to white and red sparkling wines. In this study, second fermentation in the bottle was carried out by Saccharomyces cerevisiae as control and two non-Saccharomyces species: Saccharomycodes ludwigii and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The second fermentations of white base wine made from Vitis Vinifera cv. Airen grapes and red base wine made from Vitis Vinifera cv. Tempranillo grapes, in the bottle were followed by aging on lees during 4 months at 12 °C. Finally, physicochemical properties were analyzed and a sensory evaluation was held. Significant differences were detected among sparkling wines produced with the studied yeasts in acidity parameters and non-volatile compounds. The pyranoanthocyanin content and color intensity was higher with the use of Schizosaccharomyces pombe in red sparkling wines. The total amount of volatile compounds was similar among treatments, but in certain compounds, individual variations in concentration were seen. Total amount of biogenic amines decreased in all the samples after the treatment. Differences were also detected in sensory evaluation; the sparkling wines produced with Saccharomyces cerevisiae showed different aromatic profile in comparison to sparkling wines produced with Schizosaccharomyces pombe, considering the parameters of limpidity, aroma intensity, aroma quality, flowery, fruity, buttery and reduction aromas in white samples; color intensity, limpidity, aroma intensity, herbal, buttery, yeasty, and oxidation aromas in red samples. Usage of non-Saccharomyces yeasts for sparkling wine production with traditional method can be furtherly studied to change specific characteristics of sparkling wines without decreasing their overall quality and obtain differentiation.

Enological Tannin Effect on Red Wine Color and Pigment Composition and Relevance of the Yeast Fermentation Products.

Enological tannins are widely used in the winemaking process either to improve different wine characteristics (color stability, among others) or to compensate for low tannin levels. In this work, the influence of the addition of two different enological tannins, mainly composed of hydrolysable (ellagitannins) and condensed tannins, on the evolution of color and pigment composition of two different types of model systems containing the five main grape anthocyanins was studied. In addition, the effect of the addition of an enological tannin on the color and pigment composition of red wines made from Vitis vinifera L. cv Tempranillo grapes was also studied by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection coupled to mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS). Results showed that, in model systems, the addition of the enological tannin favored the formation of anthocyanin-derived pigments, such as A-type and B-type vitisins and flavanol-anthocyanin condensation products, provided that the yeast precursors were previously supplied. Moreover, model systems containing the enological tannins were darker and showed higher values of chroma at the end of the study than control ones. The higher formation of these anthocyanin-derived pigments was also observed in the red wines containing the enological tannin. Moreover, these wine also showed lower lightness (L*) values and higher chroma (C*ab) values than control wines, indicating a higher stabilization of color.

Methyl jasmonate effect on Tempranillo (Vitis vinifera L.) grape phenolic content: a 2-year study

Poster presentado en el X International Symposium on Grapevine Physiology and Biotechnology, celebrado en Verona del 13 al 18 de junio de 2016.

Methyl jasmonate: effect on proanthocyanidin content in Monastrell and Tempranillo grapes and wines

Proanthocyanidins or “condensed tannins” play an important role in the organoleptic properties of wines, and their levels in both grapes and wines can be achieved by several means. One such way is based on the use of elicitors, agrochemicals which were originally designed to improve resistance to plant pathogens, but whose action mechanism has also been found to increase polyphenol levels. Among these chemical elicitors, jasmonic acid and, especially, its methyl ester, methyl jasmonate (MeJ), can increase the production of secondary metabolites such as anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and other antioxidant molecules, enhancing the fruit quality and post-harvest life, as well as increasing their health-related properties. The objective of this study was to determine whether the application during two consecutive years of MeJ to Monastrell and Tempranillo varieties at the veraison period had any effect on the accumulation of proanthocyanidins and subsequently on their extractability into wine. The results obtained indicated that treatments increased the grape proanthocyanidin content only in one of the years but for both varieties tested, as well as their levels in the corresponding wines.

Does Full Exposure of Clusters Have Any Negative Effects on Tempranillo (Vitis vinifera L.) Grape Quality in La Rioja, Spain? The Use of Severe Cluster-zone Leaf Removal after Berry Set

A three-year experiment comprising severe leaf removal (LR) was carried out on Tempranillo grapes in Logrono, North-central Spain. For the LR treatment, six basal leaves, along with the basal lateral shoots, were removed two weeks after fruit set. Berry total soluble solids (TSS) were examined when the colour began to appear. Grapes from both the LR and control (C) vines were analysed at the same TSS level (≈ 22°Brix). LR advanced the onset of anthocyanin synthesis slightly but significantly. Yield components were not affected by LR and no symptoms of sunburn were observed. Both treatments showed similar juice pH and titratable acidity, although tartaric acid increased with LR while malic acid decreased with it. In spite of failing to increase the final anthocyanin concentration of the grape juice, LR enhanced the colour and body of the wine. These results indicate that a relatively early LR could be a viable way to improve the quality of grapes and wine under the climatic conditions of the Rioja wine region.

Effects of adults body size and larvae diet on the fecundity and percent fertility of eggs laid by Xylotrechus arvicola (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) females, insect pest in Spanish vineyards

AbstractXylotrechus arvicola is a pest of grape in some vine‐producing regions of the Iberian Peninsula. Biological parameters and relationships (fecundity and percent fertility of eggs in relationship to body size) of females obtained in the laboratory and captured in vineyards were studied. In laboratory conditions, the mean developmental time of larvae ranged from 384 to 392 days and pupal stage varied between 12 to 14 days. Body size (BS) of X. arvicola females was significantly bigger than males. Fecundity was greater in the laboratory (147 eggs) than in the field (50 eggs) females, but the percent fertility of the laboratory eggs was lower (16 eggs). Laboratory females showed a bigger relationship between the production of eggs and BS than females captured in vineyards. Wild females (PDO Ribera del Duero and Tierra de León) had a positive relationship between the percent fertility of eggs and the BS. No correlation between the percent fertility of eggs and the BS was displayed by females captured in PDO Toro, but these females had a higher percent fertility (53 eggs) than the others PDO's. These biological parameters and relationships studied suggest that the artificial diet may lack certain essential nutrients that vine varieties can provide that favor the fertility of eggs. This explains why wild females have the potential to become a problem pest in the Tempranillo grape variety, with bilateral cordon and bush vines training systems that have the highest incidence of this cerambycid.

Phenolic composition of Tempranillo grapes following foliar applications of phenylalanine and urea: A two-year study

Foliar fertilization with nitrogen compounds has been reported to have a substantial impact on grape composition. Overall, this practice has been associated with an increase of grape nitrogen compounds. However, much less is known about its real impact on phenolic composition, especially through more than one year. In the current work, grape phenolic composition was studied after carrying out foliar treatments with two nitrogen sources (phenylalanine and urea) at 0.9kgN/ha over two consecutive vintages. Phenylalanine treatments increased the concentration of a few anthocyanin compounds in comparison with control, although hydroxycinnamic acids were decreased in the first year of the study. In contrast, urea application increased some flavanol compounds in the second year, while no effect was observed in the first one. Overall, it was not observed a significant decrease of phenolic compounds which, in contrast, has been traditionally associated with high nitrogen supply by soil fertilization. In conclusion, the foliar application of phenylalanine and urea at 0.9kgN/ha did not exert a big impact on grape phenolic composition.

Effects of Irrigation and Cluster Thinning on Tempranillo Grape and Wine Composition

With the aim of understanding the effects of water stress and cluster load on berry composition and wine quality, a four-year field test was conducted in a cv. Tempranillo vineyard in Extremadura (Spain). When the first berries appeared to be changing colour (onset of veraison), grapevines were subjected to two different irrigation regimes, one supplying 100% of crop evapotranspiration, and the other 25%. In addition, two cluster load levels were tested for each irrigation regime: seven to nine and four to five clusters/m2 planting area. Both irrigation and thinning had an impact on most of the parameters analysed in the grapes and the wines, although the thinning effect was in general higher than the irrigation effect. Thus, deficit irrigation reduced malic acid and the titratable acidity of Tempranillo grape juice, while cluster thinning increased all parameters analysed, except potassium concentrations. Similarly, the wine composition was also affected differently by irrigation and by cluster thinning. Deficit irrigation reduced pH and increased titratable acidity, total phenol index and colour parameters, while cluster thinning increased alcohol content, anthocyanin and colour intensity, and reduced pH and colour. The effect of the cluster thinning technique was independent of the irrigation regime in most of the wine parameters analysed, except for total phenol index, where the effect of deficit irrigation (DI) was more pronounced in grapevines also subjected to the cluster thinning treatment.

Flavonols in skins of wild grapes (Vitis viniferaL., subsp. sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi)

Flavonols are a group of grape phenolics that play an important role in young red wines, as they are involved in copigmentation of the flavylium form of anthocyanins. A study on the flavonol composition of grape skins in several wild grapevine genotypes from different Iberian natural populations, preserved at El Encin Germoplasm Bank, has been carried out in 2012. Flavonol glycosides contained in grape skins were determined by HPLC-DAD and HPLC-MS, through a previous phase of purification, using ion exchange chromatographic columns to retain anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds, so that flavonols do not suffer co-elution with other components, improving HPLC analysis. Thus, it was possible to separate 12 flavonol glycosides, and eight of them were successfully identified. The major flavonols were quercetin-3-O -glucoside, quercetin-3-O -glucoronide and myricetin-3-O -glucoside. The diversity and number of flavonols differed for each genotype. The total content of flavonols ranged from 25 to 350 mg/kg grapes; the richest genotype was three times richer than Tempranillo grapes, used as a reference. The most significant difference between wild genotypes and reference cultivars was that, in many cases, myricetin-3-O -glucoside or quercetin-3-O -glucuronide predominated in wild genotypes.

Combined effects of irrigation regimes and crop load on ‘Tempranillo’ grape composition

The effects of different irrigation regimes, maintained during fruit set to post-harvest (rainfed vines and vines irrigated at 25, 50 and 100% of estimated crop evapotranspiration), were investigated during four consecutive seasons (2005–2008) in a vineyard located in south-western Spain on grapevine cv. Tempranillo berry composition. In addition, two crop level regimes were established for each irrigation treatment by cluster thinning carried out around veraison in a split-plot design with irrigation as the main factor and cluster thinning as second. Considerable vintage-to-vintage variations in many quality parameters were observed despite berry total soluble solids content remaining nearly constant at around 23°Brix each year. Irrigation applications, when compared with rainfed cultivation, increased berry titratable acidity and malic acid but slightly decreased berry total polyphenols and anthocyanins potential. Veraison cluster thinning increased berry malic acid, potassium and total phenolic compounds but reduced titratable acidity. High crop level slightly delayed harvest date around three days, but grapes from both thinned and unthinned vines reached similar sugar concentrations in all seasons except when leaf area-to-yield ratio was lower than 1m2kg−1, where sugar berry concentration was below 21°Brix. It is concluded that irrigation is an interesting technique to increase berry titratable acidity for Tempranillo grapes in semi-arid terroirs where grape acidity is usually too low. Cluster thinning can be used to increase berry phenolic potential. However, in addition to the detrimental effects on performance, cluster thinning may decrease the acidity levels. It is therefore only recommended when very high yield hinders proper ripening.

Relationship between Agronomic Parameters, Phenolic Composition of Grape Skin, and Texture Properties of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tempranillo.

The relationship between the agronomic parameters of grapevine and the phenolic composition of skin of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tempranillo grapes was assessed. The physical and mechanical properties of berries and their skins were also determined and correlated to the chemical composition. Results showed a significant negative correlation between grapevine vigor-related parameters (such as leaf area and bunch weight) and anthocyanin composition, whereas the percentage (w/w) of seeds was negatively correlated with the amount of flavanols of grape skins. Texture properties of grape skins also showed an important relationship with chemical composition. Berry hardness showed a negative correlation with the coumaroyl-anthocyanin derivatives, but it was positively correlated to skin flavanic composition. Moreover, significant regressions with high coefficients of determination were found between phenolic composition and grapevine vigor-related and texture variables, thus pointing out that these parameters might be useful for estimating the phenolic composition of grape skins.

Extractability of Low Molecular Mass Flavanols and Flavonols from Red Grape Skins. Relationship to Cell Wall Composition at Different Ripeness Stages.

Flavonol and flavan-3-ol extractabilities from red grape skins were evaluated in Tempranillo grapes harvested at different ripeness stages and with different soluble solid contents within each stage. Flavan-3-ol extractability is related to ripeness stage and also to cell wall composition, mainly to arabinogalactans (AG), mannans, rhamnogalacturonans-I (RG-I), homogalacturonans (HG), xyloglucans (XG), and total polysaccharides content, which are negatively correlated to flavan-3-ol extractability, whereas soluble solid content did not exert any influence on their extraction. Moreover, procyanidin extraction is more strongly related to cell wall composition than prodelphinidin extraction. Flavonol extractability was not influenced by insoluble material contents; although some cell wall components presented a relationship with flavonol extractability, the presence of AG and mannans would decrease total flavonol extractability, whereas protein is positively related to total and major flavonol compounds (i.e., quercetin and myricetin derivatives). The different behaviors observed between those two groups of polyphenol compounds could be due to different tissue and cellular location.

Prediction of Phenolic Composition of Monastrell and Tempranillo Wines: Correlation between Phenolic Content and Traditional Variables of Fruit Maturity

Color is one of the most important factors in the quality assessment of red wine. Polyphenolic compounds, located in the skin and seeds of grapes, are responsible for the color of both the fruit and the wine produced from that fruit. In the present research, the level of phenolic maturity of Monastrell and Tempranillo grapes at their time of arrival to the winery was investigated. To this end, parameters defining color and polyphenol content in wines produced from these grapes were contrasted with parameters typically associated with general and phenolic grape maturity. The main aim of this research was to uncover the nature of the relationship between these parameters, such that, by knowing the characteristics of the grapes, predictions could be made regarding the characteristics of the resulting wine. The capacity to objectively assess and predict the potential quality and enological fitness of a given lot of Monastrell and Tempranillo grapes would greatly facilitate selection of the style of vinification best suited to this fruit.

The influence of ripeness grade on the composition of musts and wines from Vitis vinifera cv. Tempranillo grown in a warm climate

Fruit ripeness has an influence on the phenolic and aromatic composition of grapes and musts and, therefore, on the sensorial characteristics of the resulting wine. The aim of the work described here was to assess the influence of the harvest date on the analytical composition of the musts and wines from the Vitis vinifera cv. Tempranillo grape grown in a warm climate. A hydroalcoholic medium was employed to extract the musts and simulate a traditional maceration process. Phenolic compounds were analysed by colorimetric methods and aroma compounds by gas chromatography/mass-spectrometry. Furthermore, the wines were tested by a sensory panel. A good correlation was obtained between the parameters measured in the must and in the corresponding wine, as well as in the scores recorded in the sensory analysis. In summary, grape ripening was found to have a marked influence on the wine composition and it was possible to establish the key parameters that need to be measured in the must during ripening to identify the optimal harvest date to obtain the best quality wine.

Effect of temperature on the anthocyanin extraction and color evolution during controlled dehydration of Tempranillo grapes.

In this paper, the influence of temperature during the controlled dehydration of Tempranillo red grapes has been studied. Two experiments at fixed temperatures of 30 and 40 °C, and a third experiment alternating temperatures of 40 and 15 °C every 12 h were carried out. The must from grapes dried at 40 °C presented the reddest color, and the highest anthocyanin concentration and antioxidant activity. A possible hypothesis could be that the high temperature induced a continuous water evaporation from the grapes, preventing the oxygen entry. At the same time, the dehydration resulted in broken skins, which facilitated the transfer of colored compounds to the pulp, increasing the red color of the musts. However, when the temperature dropped, oxygen could penetrate through the skin and the browning reactions started. As a result, the must obtained from gra pes dehydrated by alternating high and low temperatures presented the least anthocyanin content and the least red color.

Optimization of Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Different Types of Grape Pomace Produced at Wineries and Distilleries

Natural extracts obtained from grape pomace are particularly interesting, due to the substantial variety of valuable compounds present with health benefits, specifically phenolic compounds such as anthocyanins, trans-resveratrol, quercetin, and proanthocyanidins. The production of such extracts has been recognized as a profitable way to valorize grape byproducts, which are low-value and most abundant. First, the effect of the solvent on the extraction of bioactive compounds from grape pomace is studied. The selected solvents are water and ethanol, biocompatible and available in wineries and distilleries. Then, different types of grape pomace obtained along the various stages of current industrial winemaking and distillation processes are analyzed. As a result, the best stage of the winemaking and distillation processes for pomace valorization is identified, corresponding to the grape byproduct with the highest potential as source of bioactive compounds. These studies were performed with Vitis vinifera variety of Tempranillo grapes (same year, same vineyard). This work optimizes the production of natural extracts from (byproduct) grape pomace with recognized health benefits, to be used as high value nutraceuticals ingredients. The process proposed uses renewable and low-cost resources existent in wineries and distilleries. The select solvent extracting is a mixture of the biocompatible water and ethanol. The selected fermented grape pomace was chosen from different and comparable types of grape pomace obtained at current winemaking and distillation processes, to be used in extraction without any pretreatment.

Adding oenological tannin vs. overripe grapes: Effect on the phenolic composition of red wines

The effects on the phenolic composition (flavanols, phenolic acids and anthocyanins) and on CIELAB colour parameters of two different oenological practices (adding oenological tannin, using overripe grapes), whose purpose is to compensate wine quality deficiencies, have been evaluated in red wines made from Tempranillo grapes in two consecutive vintages. Both the addition of oenological tannin and the use of overripe grapes generally increased hydroxycinnamic acids and pigment contents. However, the effect of the former was noticeable above all in early stages of winemaking and ageing, whereas the effect of the latter was observable in late stages of ageing. In general, flavanol content increased in wines treated with oenological tannin, and decreased in wines made from overripe grapes in relation to control wines. Colour differences (ΔE*ab) between control and treated wines were in some stages higher than 3, indicating that the colour modifications caused by both treatments can be detectable by the human eye. Results showed that the addition of the oenological tannin to wine will be useful to address deficiencies in flavanol and pigment contents, whereas the use of overripe grapes will be useful when colour stabilization is required.

Effects of defoliation and water restriction on total phenols and antioxidant activities in grapes during ripening

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aim</strong>: To compare the effect of water restriction and defoliation on the phenol contents and oxidant and antioxidant activities of Tempranillo grapes grown in the region of Extremadura, Spain.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results</strong>: The results showed that at harvest, the water restriction treatment altered total foliar area, pH, and total soluble solid (TSS) and phenol contents but not polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. By contrast, the defoliation treatment did not affect TSS and pH, however, titratable acidity and phenol compounds were enhanced and PPO and SOD activities were decreased. Moreover, defoliation resulted in advanced grape ripening and reduced total foliar area. </p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion</strong>: At harvest, water restriction led to alterations in the levels of peroxidation and peroxidase (POX) activity, without any effect on the other parameters. Defoliation induced a lowering of PPO and SOD activities and an increase in phenol content.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Significance and impact of the study</strong>: Given the environmental characteristics of the Extremadura region, defoliation may be suitable and efficient for regulating Tempranillo grape PPO activity, which is œnologically relevant since it could lead to lower levels of phenol oxidation and hence prevent wine discolouration.</p>