Temporal Immediacy Research Articles

The Impact of Locus of Control, Moral Intensity, and the Microsocial Ethical Environment on Purchasing-Related Ethical Reasoning

This study uses a sample of 242 European professional purchasers to examine the six characteristics of the decision-making process developed by Jones (Acad Manag Rev 16:366–395, 1991). The illustration mobilizes six original scenarios reproducing typical purchasing situations. Two versions of each scenario were used, one representing low moral intensity and the other showing high moral intensity. Two populations were sampled: one of 120 purchasers responding to the first version of the questionnaire and a second of 122 different purchasers responding to version two. Each version contained three low-moral-intensity scenarios and three high-moral-intensity scenarios. The research also investigates two concepts suggested by Hannah et al. (Acad Manag Rev 36(4):663–685, 2011): examining the complexity of ethical decision-making through scenarios and microsocial professional ethical contexts. The findings reveal that neither traditional individual characteristics (gender, age, experience) nor standard company characteristics (type of activity, company size) have a real impact on two stages of Rest’s (Moral development: Advances in research and theory. Praeger Press, New York, 1986) model (awareness and intention). They also show that internal locus of control and a high microsocial ethical environment have a positive impact on purchaser awareness and intention to act ethically for four of the six dimensions: magnitude of consequences, social consensus, temporal immediacy, and concentration of effect. Moral intensity factors also have a positive impact on these four dimensions. The two other dimensions (probability of effect and proximity) are not related to the independent variables.

Hubungan Faktor Internal dan Eksternal terhadap Proses Pengambilan Keputusan Etis

This study aims to examine the relationship of two factors, namely internal factors (based on the individual characteristics: personal moral philosophy which is consisting of idealism and relativism, education level, gender and age) as well as external factors (moral intensity which has six variables, namely the magnitude of the consequences, social consensus, probability of effect, temporal immediacy, concentration of effect, and proximity) to the three-stage of ethical decision-making processes (ethical recognition, judgment and intention). Data collected used survey method. Respondents are undergraduate and graduate students of accounting. A total of 173 respondents had fill out questionnaires completely. Analyis data used hierarchical linear regression, independent t-test and one-way anova. The findings show that some of the variables tested had a significant relationship as predicted in all of the three stage of ethical decision-making processes with a difference in level of significance. However, no significant relationship was found regarding the relationship of age in all of the three stages, as well as the the evidence of a significant relationship that is inconsistent with the predictions regarding the relationship of gender in the stages of ethical intention and the relationship of probability of effect and proximity in the stages of ethical recognition.

Prescribing under the Influence: The Business of Breastmilk Substitutes

This study draws on a general theoretical framework comprising of a decision maker (a doctor), perceived moral intensity of the issue (breastfeeding substitute prescription), and the situational environment (hospital policy, pharma company promotions, and mother’s beliefs regarding breastfeeding) to explain the physician’s role and influence on mothers’ infant feeding choices when prescribing infant formula in Kuwait, Middle East. Moral intensity is an issue-contingent model that suggests ethical decisions vary in terms of how much a moral imperative is present in a situation. The moral intensity of the issue is assessed using six components. Path Least Squares results indicate the following moral intensity components have significant impact on prescription behavior: magnitude of consequences, probability of effect, and temporal immediacy. Company promotion and hospital policy also significantly influence doctor’s prescription of infant formula. Doctors appear to disengage from the consequences of over prescribing infant formula.

Promoting Ethical Behaviour Through Management of Bad Apples: A Conceptual Analysis

The paper provides a conceptual analysis of multiple facets related to dynamics of bad apples in any organization-their behavior, characteristics, individual forces, organizational forces, and moderators that promote their existence and growth in regard to creating and sustaining ethical culture. It also emphasises the role of management to work efficiently considering the negative forces brought to the working space by these bad apples. More so, specific issues like ethical and unethical behavior, morality, and the environment under which the ethical behavior transforms into unethical behavior in the organization are also analyzed. Studies narrated that organizations can promote ethical environment through employee feedback, employee engagement, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), adherence to ethical code of conduct, social exclusion, sound reward, and whistle blowing policy. The paper further emphasizes the influence of moral intensity through probability of effect, proximity, social consensus, magnitude of consequences and temporal immediacy, on ethical behavior. Besides, people with personality trait of machiavellianism and self-monitoring are more likely to become/follow bad apples and have also been observed to accelerate the individual level of unethical behavior in the organization. The need for empirical study was felt taking into account the above mentioned variables to reach an objective conclusion on the proliferation and management of bad apples in any organization and promotion of ethical behavior.

The Effect of Moral Intensity on it Employees' Bad News Reporting

Safety critical systems can cause injury or death to people if they malfunction, and thus it is of vital importance for employees to report bugs in such systems. Based on the notions of moral intensity and morality judgment, we propose a model that explains employees' intentions to report bugs in safety critical systems. We conducted a conjoint experiment to test the model. Based on data from 173 software engineers, we found that morality judgment plays a key role in mediating the relationship between moral intensity and bad news reporting. Specifically, we found that two dimensions of moral intensity—magnitude of consequences and probability of effect—exert both direct and indirect effects on the willingness to report bad news. Further, we found that two other dimensions of moral intensity—temporal immediacy and proximity to victims—do not exert direct effects, but influence bad news reporting indirectly through morality judgment.

Barbary(an) Invasions: The North African Figure in Republican Print Culture

WE, the subjects of the United States of America, having the misfortune to be taken by the Algerines and brought into this port, and made slaves of, being stripped of every one of our clothes, and left in a state of slavery and misery, the severities of which are beyond your imagination, [we hope] you will take our grievances into consideration.... Americans, beware! Let nothing tempt you to come in the way of these people, for they are worse than you can imagine. Public letter from three captive American captains in Algiers to the American consul at Cadiz, 1785 TWO ALGERINE GENTLEMEN GLORIOUS NEWS!! announces an issue of the Impartial Herald of Newburyport, Massachusetts, on August 30, 1794. Citing European newspapers just arrived from Rotterdam on the ship Mary, the Herald reports on French advances in Belgium, detailing months-old battles across northern Europe. Yet the Mary brought more to Newburyport than just belated news from a war on the far side of the Atlantic; near the bottom of this tightly packed column of newsprint appears a brief mention of two conspicuous visitors: Two Algerine gentlemen came passengers in the Mary: As reports are in circulation respecting their visiting this country, for the satisfaction of our readers, we have obtained the following accounts from a gentleman who has conversed with them. Eight years since one of them commanded a frigate in the service of the Dey and being taken by three Neapolitan frigates, it was dangerous for them to return to Algiers; they have since been traveling in different parts of Europe, and have recommendations from very respectable characters there. They will in a few days proceed on to Philadelphia. (GLORIOUS) The arrival of these two Algerian tourists at Newburyport had apparently caused quite a stir--an event that, in contrast to the wars raging in Europe, had both a geographic and temporal immediacy for readers of the Herald. The newspaper's report of the two gentlemen circulates as a timely and authoritative intervention into the public conversation. Although the piece does not elaborate on the content of the various reports, they come within the context of long-standing tensions between America and Algiers; in 1794, the United States was effectively at war with the dey of Algiers, and had been for almost a decade. The conflict with Algiers had already struck the Herald's readership close to home. From September to November of the previous year, Algerian cruisers took advantage of a temporary treaty with Portugal to sail out of the Mediterranean and capture eleven American ships and imprison over a hundred sailors. That September, Newburyport native John Foss was captured and enslaved after his ship, the Polly, was taken off the coast of North Africa. Foss was one of only four crewmen from the Polly to survive in captivity until his release in 1796. After returning to Newburyport, he would publish an account of his enslavement, A Journal, of the Captivity and Sufferings of John Foss (1798), in which he condemned the extreme cruelties ... taught by the Religion of Mahomet ... to persecute all its opposers (73). However, at a time when Foss was still toiling in Algiers, the Herald offers a notably evenhanded account of the Algerian gentlemen in its own backyard. The gentlemen are, after all, recommended by many respectable persons in Europe. It is unclear whether these two Algerian visitors ever arrived in Philadelphia, but reports of them certainly did. On August 30, the Gazette of the United States in Philadelphia reprinted the Impartial Herald's report. On September 22, it announced that the Algerian gentlemen had reached Boston and met with Governor Samuel Adams. The report describes them simply as men of a large size and dressed in Turkish habiliments (Natives). Over a month later, the Gazette carried a report from Providence that names the two travelers: Sieur Ibrahim and Mahomed Ben Ali. …

Similarity increases altruistic punishment in humans

Humans are attracted to similar others. As a consequence, social networks are homogeneous in sociodemographic, intrapersonal, and other characteristics--a principle called homophily. Despite abundant evidence showing the importance of interpersonal similarity and homophily for human relationships, their behavioral correlates and cognitive foundations are poorly understood. Here, we show that perceived similarity substantially increases altruistic punishment, a key mechanism underlying human cooperation. We induced (dis)similarity perception by manipulating basic cognitive mechanisms in an economic cooperation game that included a punishment phase. We found that similarity-focused participants were more willing to punish others' uncooperative behavior. This influence of similarity is not explained by group identity, which has the opposite effect on altruistic punishment. Our findings demonstrate that pure similarity promotes reciprocity in ways known to encourage cooperation. At the same time, the increased willingness to punish norm violations among similarity-focused participants provides a rationale for why similar people are more likely to build stable social relationships. Finally, our findings show that altruistic punishment is differentially involved in encouraging cooperation under pure similarity vs. in-group conditions.

Do You Need a Receipt? Exploring Consumer Participation in Consumption Tax Evasion as an Ethical Dilemma

The paper focuses on the consumer side of consumption tax evasion (CTE), a subcategory of the shadow economy. The ethical dimensions of tax evasion have been effectively captured by the existent literature on tax morale, yet it fails to address the role consumers can play in CTE. Further, there is a shortage of tax morale studies that explore ethical decision making as a process composed of multiple steps and determinants. To bridge these gaps, we turned to the consumer ethics literature and Jones’ issue-contingent model of ethical decision making. We developed the conceptual model of consumer ethical decision making for CTE by incorporating four key elements from the issue-contingent model, i.e. moral recognition, moral judgement, moral intention and moral intensity, while personal moral philosophies were introduced as an antecedent to the consumer ethical decision-making process. The study was conducted on a sample of consumers from Slovenia, where CTE is a widespread phenomenon. The findings confirm that consumers’ recognition of CTE as a moral issue is influenced by their moral philosophy and perceptions regarding the magnitude of CTE’s consequences, their visibility, probability, and temporal immediacy. These perceptions also play an important role in determining consumers’ moral judgements and intentions regarding CTE. Moreover, through the process of moral recognition and moral judgement, consumers form intentions to participate in, or avoid CTE. The study holds important implications for public policy makers who are trying to reduce the tax gap in times of economic instability and fiscal crisis.

Excessive risk exposure: A question of ethical decision-making

This commentary essay reflects on the article titled “When an irresistible force meets an immovable object: The interplay of agency and structure in the UK financial crisis” (Ashby et al., this issue). Specifically, managers took on excessive risk that ultimately contributed to financial crisis. This essay discusses whether the decision to accept excessive risk falls under ethical decision-making, including the degree of moral intensity as possibly perceived by risk and financial managers. The components for determining moral intensity include (1) magnitude of consequences, (2) social consensus, (3) probability of effect, (4) temporal immediacy, (5) proximity, and (6) concentration of effect.

The early Heidegger's philosophy of life: facticity, being, and language

In his early lecture courses, Martin Heidegger exhibited an abiding interest in human life. He believed that human life has philosophical import while it is actually being lived; language has philosophical import while it is being spoken. In this book, Scott Campbell traces the development of Heidegger's ideas about factical life through his interest in Greek thought and its concern with Being. He contends that Heidegger's existential concerns about human life and his ontological concerns about the meaning of Being crystallize in the notion of Dasein as the Being of factical human life. Emphasizing the positive aspects of everydayness, Campbell explores the contexts of meaning embedded within life; the intensity of average, everyday life; the temporal immediacy of life in early Christianity; the hermeneutic pursuit of life's self-alienation; factical spatiality; the temporalizing of history within life; the richness of the world; and the facticity of speaking in Plato and Aristotle. He shows how Heidegger presents a way of grasping human life as riddled with deception but also charged with meaning and open to revelation and insight.

Catching fleeting memories: Victim forums as mediated remembering communities

This article examines the potential of the new media to provide space for the voicing of traumatic pasts. Using the example of www.stasiopfer.de , a site dedicated to the victims of persecution in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR), I consider the development of remembering communities on the internet. Close textual analysis of a selection of posts reveals the ways in which group belonging is constructed linguistically. The observation of a hybrid language form between orality and textuality, and the staging of temporal immediacy, is linked to the concept of a medial trace that has a structuring impact on the memories produced. I argue that in the case of internet communication part of this medial trace is the ‘catching’ of otherwise evanescent memory, that is, the mediatization of communicative memory. In this way, discussion forums that focus on memory can be described as both part of ‘stored’ cultural memory and mediated remembering communities.

스마트폰 애플리케이션 불법복제에 대한 소비자의 도덕적 판단과 불법복제의도 -전북지역 대학생을 중심으로 한 사례분석

Although consumer ethical behavior related with illegal copies of digital software has been considered to be an important issue, not many studies have attempted to examine the issue. Firstly, this study attemped to explain the moral judgment and intention to make illegal copies of smart phone applications for college students. Secondly, psychological factors such as moral intensity and perceived risk related to making illegal copies were tested to be significantly different in individual characteristics such as experience of ethical education and past experience of making illegal copies of software, sex, age and household income. Thirdly, the effect of related factors such as psychological factors and individual characteristics was estimated to significantly influence moral judgment and intention to make illegal copies. Two step method(using LIMDEP program) was applied to estimate the model as a structural equation model. According to the results of this study, magnitude of consequences, financial risk and performance risk were found to be significantly different in income groups(less than middle class vs more than middle class). Prosecution risk was found to be significantly different in gender groups(female vs male). In addition, social consensus, financial risk, performance risk and prosecution risk were found to be significantly different in ethical education groups(experience vs no experience). Furthermore, moral judgment for making illegal copies of smart phone applications was found to be significantly influenced by income, ethical education, magnitude of consequences, temporal immediacy and social consensus. And intention to make illegal copies of smart phone applications was found to be significantly influenced by moral judgment, age, financial risk, performance risk and prosecution risk.

The Dancing Gaze Across Cultures: Kazuo Ohno's Admiring La Argentina

Kazuo Ohno's 1977 butoh dance Admiring La Argentina is studied as a Bergsonian reflection on “pastness” in performance. As the work questions the absolute quality of the present, it is initially compared with Paul Valéry's concept of La Argentina's dance as existing in the dimension of temporal immediacy. Ohno's relation to La Argentina is discussed as spirit possession, primal identification, cultural anthropophagy, productive consumption, and memorialization. Ultimately, the analysis leads to the premise of excorporation or heteropathic identification. The essay concludes with a 2007 meditation on Yoshito Ohno's homage to his father, Emptiness ( Kuu ).

On the Difficulties of “Work as Play”

Making videos is very amusing; watching them can be very tiresome. -Robert Filliou (1) Another way I have presented Permanent Creation as a practice is what I have called 'work as play' and 'art as thought,' because I consider myself as an entertainer of thoughts, and art works as exchange of foodstuffs.--Robert Filliou (2) The video artworks of Fluxus artist Robert Filliou share a quality with many early time-based works: while exceedingly rough in terms of their technical attributes, they retain a remarkable vividness and spontaneity. Filliou used video as a new, inexpensive, and practical medium for recording monologues, set pieces, performances, and comedic sketches. The temporal immediacy of video and close proximity of idea and realization worked well for the artist: [J]ust turn it on and walk away, Andy Warhol once pithily remarked regarding filmmaking although in Filliou's case, he didn't walk away. Instead, he moved closer, treating the camera eye as that of a fellow human being with whom he carried on conversations that ranged from the intense to the lighthearted. During the late 1970s, Filliou traveled to Canada with the assistance of Arts Council funding and became involved in numerous alternative art scenes of the time, including non-profit galleries, independent publications, mail art initiatives, and a wealth of conceptualist and performance-related practices. Although Filliou spent time in several locations across Canada, the majority of his video works were created with Western Front, a then-recent artist collective from Vancouver, featuring such artists and collaborators as Hank Bull, Kate Craig, and Roy Kiyooka, as well as Filliou's own family. Although these tapes have been exhibited in a variety of contexts, most notably in a survey at. the University of British Columbia in 1996, they are still under-examined, particularly in relation to their significance to Filliou's practice, to Fluxus, and to the experimental art of the period. Born in France, the young Filliou was intellectually curious but, according to childhood friends, he was good for nothing practically speaking. (3) He participated in the French resistance but later rejected any recognition of this activity when he became a pacifist. A one-time communist, Filliou eventually discarded specific ideological allegiances, in favor of a broader interest in social commitment via art and its surrounding dialogues. Filliou trained as an economist--earning his Master's degree from UCLA in 1951 subsequently assisting in the production of World Opinion, an ABC television series on current, political events, and acting as an economic, advisor and negotiator with the United Nations in Egypt, Japan, and Korea. By the early 1950s, however, a very disillusioned and restless Filliou dropped out, only to insinuate himself into the most advanced and experimental art scenes of the era--his own practice most frequently taking the form of performances, happenings, artists' books, concrete poetry, and eventually video. Today, Filliou's video experiments effectively serve as a disarming time warp, a window into an intimate setting by which spectators can be brought closer to one of the most important Fluxus artists. That Filliou's oeuvre was among the most emphatically performative of an utterly performative artists' movement makes his avowed interest in video entirely germane to, and representative of, his practice. Upon initial viewing, his videos may appear disarmingly imperfect, unhurried, and welcoming, but this is only a veneer partially disguising works that are extremely challenging in terms of their philosophical dimensions, their broader implications, and their radically inventive strategies. Moreover, at a time when many artists were exploring the notion of video as a technological signal to be tinkered with, or as a form most amenable to experiments in quavering, pictorial abstraction, Filliou was more interested in the ways in which video could enable and depict reciprocal and responsive dialogues and circuits of information between artists and audiences (the latter frequently consisting of other artists). …

Design and Validation of a Novel New Instrument for Measuring the Effect of Moral Intensity on Accountants’ Propensity to Manage Earnings

The goal of this study was to construct a valid new instrument to measure the effect of moral intensity on managers’ propensity to manage earnings. More specifically, this study is a pilot study of the impact of moral intensity on financial accountants’ propensity to manage earnings. The instrument, once validated, will be used in a full-study of managers in the hotel industry. Different ethical scenarios were presented to respondents in the survey; each ethical scenario was designed in both high or low moral intensity form, to reflect the importance of the moral dilemma at hand. The results were analysed by factor analysis. The findings of this study have positively validated the instrument, with three of the five moral intensity components identified as having appropriate eigenvalues. This indicates that they have a significant influence in the study. The first factor captures the social consensus dimension and one scenario of the proximity dimension. The second factor indicates an interaction between the temporal immediacy and the magnitude of consequences dimension. The third dimension is probability of effect and one scenario of the proximity dimension. In addition, t-tests indicated that the manipulation of high and low conditions within each scenario were also successful. One limitation of the study might be the use of undergraduate accounting students as manager proxies, although prior evidence suggests use of accounting students as proxies is a valid approach in this type of study. This is a highly novel project as most prior studies have focussed on moral intensity and the general ethical decision-making process.

The role of moral intensity and moral philosophy in ethical decision making: a cross‐cultural comparison of China and the European Union

The present study uses cross‐cultural samples of marketing practitioners from two European Union (EU) nations (the United Kingdom and Spain) and China to examine the relationships between moral intensity, personal moral philosophies and ethical decision making. Additionally, cross‐cultural comparisons were made regarding intentions, personal moral philosophies and moral intensity. Results indicate that both samples tend to use the perceived harm construct (e.g. magnitude of consequences, probability of effect, temporal immediacy and concentration of effect) to determine intentions in situations involving ethical issues. However, social consensus tends to be situation‐specific for both groups and proximity seems not to be used at all when making decisions in situations involving ethics. As for personal moral philosophies, idealism is only used by the EU sample; however, for both samples, the use of relativism depends upon the specific situation.

Relative Importance Measurement of the Moral Intensity Dimensions

The relative importance of the Jones’ [Jones, T. M.: 1991, Academy of Management Review16(2), 366–395] six components of moral intensity was measured using a conjoint experimental design. The most important components influencing ethical perceptions were: probability of effect, magnitude of consequences, and temporal immediacy. Contrary to previous research, overall social consensus was not an important factor. However, consumers exhibit distinctly different patterns in ethical evaluation, and for approximately 15% of respondents social consensus was the most important dimension.

「対人関係の形成」に対する体育独自の意義 : A. シュッツの「我々関係」における「時間的直接性」及び「空間的直接性」に着目して

The purpose of this study was to clarify the original meaning of physical education in terms of the formation of interpersonal relationships. For this purpose, A. Schutz's concepts of “temporal immediacy” and “spatial immediacy” were examined in order to clarify the role of the human body in the formation of interpersonal relationships and the study.Procedure was as follows ; i. The theories of interpersonal relationships in social psychology and moral education were surveyed. Additionally, the placement of interpersonal relationships in physical education pedagogy was investigated. These surveys demonstrated the need to consider this issue in PE. ii. Schutz's concepts of “temporal immediacy” and “spatial immediacy” in the “We-relationship” were examined because the “We-relationship” is not treated as “intimacy” but as “form.” At this point, Schutz's view differs from the psychological one. He also suggests the importance of the human body in the “We-relationship.” Based on this examination, the term “working” is referred to, because “working” in interpersonal relationships is a bodily action. It is also considered indispensable to all kinds of communication. iii. Based on an examination of “working,” the role of the human body in such “immediacy” is examined. iv. The important role of the human body in interpersonal relationships is considered.The conclusions of the study were as follows ; i. “Temporal immediacy” and “spatial immediacy” represent the temporality and spatiality of “working.” These are bound with the individual ability of the human body. In addition, these factors were correlated with other's ability of the human body. ii. In physical education, it is necessary to focus on temporality and spatiality in the formation of interpersonal relationship. In other words, the original meaning of physical education for the formation of interpersonal relationships is to nurture this ability of the human body to constitute “immediacy.”

The Effect of Moral Intensity on Ethical Judgment

Following an extensive review of the moral intensity literature, this article reports the findings of two studies (one between-subjects, the other within-subject) that examined the effect of manipulated and perceived moral intensity on ethical judgment. In the between-subjects study participants judged actions taken in manipulated high moral intensity scenarios to be more unethical than the same actions taken in manipulated low moral intensity scenarios. Findings were mixed for the effect of perceived moral intensity. Both probable magnitude of consequences (a factor consisting of magnitude of consequences, probability of effect, and temporal immediacy) and social consensus had a significant effect; proximity did not. In the within-subject study manipulated moral intensity had a significant effect on ethical judgment, but perceived moral intensity did not. Regression of ethical judgment on age, gender, major, and the three perceived moral intensity factors was significant between-subjects, but not within-subject. Ethical judgment was found to be a more robust predictor of intention than perceived moral intensity using a within-subject design.

An Analysis of the Factor Structure of Jones’ Moral Intensity Construct

In 1991, Jones developed an issue-contingent model of ethical decision making in which moral intensity is posited to affect the four stages of Rest’s 1986 model (awareness, judgment, intention, and behavior). Jones claimed that moral intensity, which is “the extent of issue-related moral imperative in a situation” (p. 372), consists of six characteristics: magnitude of consequences (MC), social consensus (SC), probability of effect (PE), temporal immediacy (TI), proximity (PX), and concentration of effect (CE). This article reports the findings of two studies that analyzed the factor structure of moral intensity, operationalized by a 12-item Perceived Moral Intensity Scale (PMIS) adapted from the work of Singhapakdi et al. [1996, Journal of Business Research, 36, 245–255] and Frey [2000, Journal of Business Ethics, 26, 181–195]. The two items that were purported to measure CE were dropped due to their inability to effectively tap into the characteristic proposed by Jones. Factor analyses of the remaining 10 items supported a 3-factor structure, with the MC, PE, and TI items loading on the first factor, the PX items loading on the second factor, and the SC items loading on the third factor. These factors were labeled: Probable Magnitude of Consequences, Proximity, and Social Consensus. The authors conclude that moral intensity consists of three characteristics, rather than the six posited by Jones.