Temporal Changes In Temperature Research Articles

Leaf-to-air vapor pressure deficit differently affects barley depending on soil water availability

Plant response to drought may be altered by the variation in air temperature and humidity and these interactions may be more frequent and intense with expected climate changes. The study examines impact of temporal changes in air temperature and air humidity on spring barley grown in dry and wet soil.The impact of two hours long changes in air temperature and relative humidity (RH) was evaluated on spring barley grown in soil of optimum and limited soil water availability. The alterations in stomatal conductance, transpiration photosynthesis, leaf temperature in response of air humidity and air temperature were analyzed.Air RH strongly differentiated leaf stomatal conductance in plants grown in well-watered soil. Despite the low impact of air RH on leaf conductance in plants grown in dry soil, a significant decline in transpiration with an increase in air RH occurred. The increase in air RH induced significant increase in leaf temperature in well-watered plants. Changes in leaf vapor pressure deficit (LVPD) differently affected stomatal conductance (gH2O) in plants grown in soil with optimum and limited water availability.Temporal changes in air humidity and temperature differently affected barley grown under optimum and limited water availability.

Numerical and experimental analysis of heat and moisture transfer of Lavandula x allardii leaves during non-isothermal convective drying

In the present work, an experimental and numerical study is performed for describing the unsteady heat and moisture transport occurring in Lavandula x allardii leaves during non-isothermal drying, for time-varying temperature profiles. Drying experiments were conducted in a laboratory-scale convective dryer for an initial temperature level of 40 °C, ramping up to 60 °C at different temperature advancing rates under a constant airflow velocity of 2 m/s. A simultaneous heat and mass transfer model under a nonconjugated approach is proposed for leafy products, considering conduction and liquid diffusion among the inner layers of leaves. A computational algorithm was developed to predict the temporal and spatial changes of temperature and moisture during processing. Numerical results were validated with the experimental dehydration curves. The proposed modeling approach was found adequately fast and accurate for simulating the non-isothermal drying process of herbal leaves and can be further utilized for product-specialized dryer design, control or process optimization. • Non-isothermal drying regimes are applied on Lavandula x allardii leaves. • Effects of linear drying temperature increase on drying kinetics, are evaluated. • A simultaneous heat and mass transfer model is used to study the drying process. • Temporal and spatial changes of leaves' temperature and moisture are predicted. • Numerical results were in a good agreement with experimental dehydration curves.

Spatiotemporal and cross-scale interactions in hydroclimate variability: a case-study in France

Abstract. Understanding how water resources vary in response to climate at different temporal and spatial scales is crucial to inform long-term management. Climate change impacts and induced trends may indeed be substantially modulated by low-frequency (multi-year) variations, whose strength varies in time and space, with large consequences for risk forecasting systems. In this study, we present a spatial classification of precipitation, temperature, and discharge variability in France, based on a fuzzy clustering and wavelet spectra of 152 near-natural watersheds between 1958 and 2008. We also explore phase–phase and phase–amplitude causal interactions between timescales of each homogeneous region. A total of three significant timescales of variability are found in precipitation, temperature, and discharge, i.e., 1, 2–4, and 5–8 years. The magnitude of these timescales of variability is, however, not constant over the different regions. For instance, southern regions are markedly different from other regions, with much lower (5–8 years) variability and much larger (2–4 years) variability. Several temporal changes in precipitation, temperature, and discharge variability are identified during the 1980s and 1990s. Notably, in the southern regions of France, we note a decrease in annual temperature variability in the mid 1990s. Investigating cross-scale interactions, our study reveals causal and bi-directional relationships between higher- and lower-frequency variability, which may feature interactions within the coupled land–ocean–atmosphere systems. Interestingly, however, even though time frequency patterns (occurrence and timing of timescales of variability) were similar between regions, cross-scale interactions are far much complex, differ between regions, and are not systematically transferred from climate (precipitation and temperature) to hydrological variability (discharge). Phase–amplitude interactions are indeed absent in discharge variability, although significant phase–amplitude interactions are found in precipitation and temperature. This suggests that watershed characteristics cancel the negative feedback systems found in precipitation and temperature. This study allows for a multi-timescale representation of hydroclimate variability in France and provides unique insight into the complex nonlinear dynamics of this variability and its predictability.

Changes of the Microbiota Composition on the Surface of Pig Carcasses during Chilling and Its Associations with Alterations in Chiller's Temperature and Air Humidity.

In this study, we investigated changes of microbiota composition on the surface of pig carcasses during chilling and their associations with temporal and spatial changes of wind speed, air temperature, and air humidity. The composition of microbiota on a carcass surface varied greatly with sampling sites; in particular, the surfaces of forelegs and neck had higher load of microorganisms and different microbiota composition compared to in the air and other carcass parts. However, such a difference in the microbiota composition decreased as chilling time extended. The positive detection ratios of microbial genes resistant to sulfonamides, quinolones, tetracyclines, and β-lactams were found different greatly with chilling time and sampling sites. The β-lactam and tetracycline resistant genes were observed in higher ratios in airborne microorganisms in the chiller, while the sulfa and tetracycline resistant genes had higher ratios in the microbiota on pig carcasses. Actual measurements and dynamic simulation showed that air temperature and humidity varied greatly among different places in a chiller within the first 8 h of chilling, with higher values close to the door, but the differences became smaller afterwards. The micro-environmental differences and changes in the chiller may cause the different composition of microbiota on pig carcasses.

Temporal Change in minimum mortality temperature under climate change: a multi-country multi-community observational study

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Minimum mortality temperature (MMT) and MMT percentile (MMTP) are important indicators for human adaptation to climate. Several studies reported that the MMT and MMTP have changed over time, but the changing direction has been heterogeneous over locations. We examined the temporal change of the MMT and MMTP in a global scale and investigated the heterogeneity over communi-ties, countries, regions, and climate zones. METHODS: Daily time-series data for mortality and ambient temperature for 699 communities in 34 countries from 1986 to 2015 were analyzed by a two-stage meta-analysis. First, we used a generalized linear model with quasi-Poisson distribution to estimate the MMT in each of the 5-year non-overlapping subperiods for each community. Then, we pooled the subperiod-specific MMTs over communities using mixed effects meta-regressions to estimate the temporal change of the MMT (1) for the whole population, (2) by climate zone, (3) by region and (4) by country. Moreover, we estimated the tem-poral change of the MMTP in the same way. RESULTS:The MMT and MMTP have decreased over the subperiods for the whole population (linear slope (LS)=-0.182, p-value (p) =0.184 for MMT; LS=-0.021, p=0.035 for MMTP). Such decreasing trends were more prominent in the temperate climate zone (LS=-0.268, p=0.042 for MMT; LS=-0.025, p=0.01) than in others (i.e., tropical, dry, and continental). Region-specifically, the decreasing trends were observed in North Europe, Central Europe, South Europe, South Africa, Middle-East Asia, South-East Asia and Australia while increasing trends were found in North America, Central Amer-ica, South America and East Asia. Country-specific results closely followed the region-specific re-sults. CONCLUSIONS:We found the MMT and the MMTP have decreased over time for the entire study population, but the changing direction was largely heterogeneous over climate zones, regions, and countries. Our results suggest that human adaptation may largely depend on regional and country-specific characteristics. KEYWORDS: Climate Change, Minimum Mortality Temperature, Adaptation, Heterogeneity

Dragonfly Conservation in the Increasingly Stressed African Mediterranean-Type Ecosystems

Freshwater habitats worldwide are experiencing many threats from environmental and anthropogenic sources, affecting biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. In Africa, particularly in Mediterranean climate zones, rapid human population growth is predicted to have great impact on natural habitats besides naturally occurring events such as unpredictable drought frequency and severity. Here, we analyze the potential correlation between odonate assemblage conservation priority (measured with the Dragonfly Biotic Index: DBI) and the magnitude of climate change and human perturbation in African regions with a dominant Mediterranean climate, namely Northern (NAR: Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and Southern African region (SAR: South Africa). Using a compilation of studies assessing odonate assemblages in lotic and lentic habitats of both regions (295 sites in NAR and 151 sites in SAR), we estimated DBI, temporal change in average annual temperature (T), annual precipitation (P), and human footprint index (HFI) in each site, then we tested whether sites with different levels of DBI were associated with different magnitudes of climatic and anthropogenic change. We estimated past (between 1980–1999 and 2000–2018) and future changes (between 1980–1999 and 2081–2100) in T and P based on three CMIP6 scenarios representing low (SSP126), moderate (SSP245), and high emission (SSP585), as well as the change in HFI from 1993 to 2009. We found that assemblages with higher DBI (i.e. higher conservation priority) encountered lower increase in T and slightly greater decrease in P than assemblages with lower DBI (i.e. lower conservation priority) in NAR during 1980–2018, but are projected to experience higher increase in T and lower decrease in P in future projections for 2081–2100. In SAR, the increase in T was mostly similar across assemblages but the decline in P was higher for assemblages with higher DBI during 1980–2018 and 2081–2100, suggesting that assemblages of higher conservation priority in SAR are threatened by drought. While HFI showed an overall increase in NAR but not in SAR, its temporal change showed only minor differences across assemblages with different DBI levels. We discuss the importance of management plans to mitigate the effects of climatic and anthropogenic threats, so improving conservation of odonate assemblages in these regions.

Analysis of daily dynamics of thermal interaction of temperature and ocean flow in seaweed growth areas

Seaweed (Caulerpa sp) is a marine biota whose growth is influenced by physical parameters. The purpose of this study was to analyze the dynamics of daily temporal changes in seawater temperature at several depth points and variations in the velocity and direction of ocean currents. Make simple mathematical modeling of ocean current velocity and daily dynamics of seawater temperature in the seaweed growth zone and outside the seaweed growth area. Temperature measurements are carried out on 4 depth variations using a current meter when the sun illuminates the ocean. Measurement of the velocity and direction of the current is carried out using a current measuring instrument during the full moon. The Fourier function or periodic function determines mathematical modeling. The results showed that the transect measurement of sea temperature for 4 depth variations experienced changes due to the intensity of solar irradiation. During one cycle, the speed and direction of the ocean currents change periodically, with the average flow velocity in the seaweed zone being 7.4 m/min and outside the Lahe region being 18.75 m/min directly to the southwest at seawater flows at high tide and northeast experiencing low tide. The daily temporal change in ocean current velocity for each measurement transect shows the same shape which is modeled according to the Fourier function.

The Influence of Wind Direction during Storms on Sea Temperature in the Coastal Water of Muping, China

Sea temperature structures are important for water stratification and marine ecosystems. In the coastal water of Muping, China, stationary measurements of sea temperature captured temporal temperature changes during two summer storm events. The north component of the wind during the two storms was opposite. The temperature responded differently to wind directions in the two storm events. A well-validated numerical ocean model was used to investigate the mechanism of sea temperature variation of the coast of Muping. The model revealed that the southerly and easterly wind was upwelling-favorable in the study area. They generated the shoreward transport of bottom cold water, which induced bottom water cooling, enhanced stratification, and weakened vertical mixing. On the other hand, the northerly and westerly wind was downwelling-favorable and enhanced turbulent mixing. The alongshore upwelling-favorable wind caused more cross-shore transport than cross-shore upwelling-favorable wind, which resulted in stronger bottom cooling. Similarly, alongshore downwelling-favorable wind generated lower temperature than cross-shore wind. A surface cold-water band was formed in the second storm. Although it was formed during upwelling-favorable wind, the temperature balance analysis indicated that vertical mixing and westward horizontal advection were the two dominant processes compared to upwelling.

Rapid functional shifts across high latitude forests over the last 65years.

Global environmental changes have strongly affected forest demographic rates, particularly amplified tree mortality in high latitude forests (e.g., two to five times greater mortality probability over the half-century). Although forest functional composition is critical for multitrophic biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, it remains unclear how functional composition has changed over time across large high latitude regions, which have been warming twice the rate of the globe as a whole. Using extensive spatial and long-term forest inventory data (17,107 plots monitored 1951-2016) across Canada, we found that after accounting for stand age-dependent functional shifts, functional composition shifted toward fast-growing deciduous broadleaved trees and higher drought tolerance over time. The temporal shift toward deciduous broadleaved trees was consistent across the baseline climate. However, over the study period, drought tolerance increased (or shade tolerance decreased) by 300% in colder boreal regions, while drought tolerance did not shift significantly in warmer temperate climates. A further analysis accounting for temporal changes in atmospheric CO2 , temperature, and water availability indicated that the functional composition of colder regions shifted toward drought tolerance more rapidly with rising CO2 than warmer regions, suggesting the greater vulnerability of boreal forests than temperate forests under ongoing global environmental changes. Future ecosystem management practices should consider spatial differences in functional responses to global environmental change, focusing on high latitude forests experiencing higher rates of warming and compositional changes.

Characteristics of plasma stream evolution in a pulsed plasma accelerator

The time-integrated spectroscopic measurements of argon plasma are carried out to characterize the transient plasma stream produced in a coaxial pulsed plasma accelerator. Transient plasmas produced in these types of devices have a temporal change in density and temperature. The temporal evolution of the plasma stream and its characteristic variation are studied from a time of 50–300 μs in steps of 50 μs. Analysis of different spectral lines shows the existence of some metastable states of Ar+ having a long lifetime. The evolution of different Ar+ transitions to metastable and non-metastable lower levels is observed for different time frames. From the Stark broadening and Boltzmann plot method assuming the partial local thermodynamic equilibrium model, the plasma densities and excitation temperatures are estimated. The temporal evolution study shows a decrease in plasma densities from 1.96 × 1021 m−3 at 50 μs to 1.23 × 1020 m−3 at 300 μs after the initiation of plasma formation. A reduction in excitation temperature is observed from 0.86 to 0.77 eV. Based on the density profile, the estimated energy density of the plasma stream shows a time-dependent decreasing trend from 0.06 to 0.004 MJ/m2 during the observed period. The results may be useful for optimization of the plasma stream in pulsed plasma accelerators concerning its different parameters.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of temperature and precipitation with reference to COVID-19 pandemic lockdown: perspective from Indian subcontinent.

This study exclusively focuses on spatial and temporal change of temperature and precipitation before and after COVID-19 lockdown and also examines the extent of their variation and the spatial relationship between them. Our main objective is to analyze the spatiotemporal changes of two climatic variables in Indian subcontinent for the period of 2015–2020. Monthly precipitation and temperature data are collected from NOAA and NASA for January to May month across the four zones (northeast, northwest, central, and peninsular zone) of India. To conduct a zone-wise statistical analysis, we have adopted statistical process control (SPC) methods like exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) control charts, individual charts (I- Chart) to detect the shift in temperature and precipitation over the study period and Pearson correlation coefficient applied to measure the spatial association between the two variables. The findings revealed that temperature parameter has experienced a lot of positive and negative trends in the span of 6 years and detected a weak to moderate negative correlation in many parts of the country in April 2020 after 2016. This study also identified a weak negative correlation mainly in NE zone in 2020 after 2017. This research provides vital scientific contribution to the effects of monthly temperature and precipitation before and after COVID-19 pandemic lockdown.Graphic abstract

Experimental investigation on the effect of initial pressure conditions during steam-water direct contact condensation in a horizontal pipe geometry

The present work reports an experimental investigation of direct contact condensation during subcooled water injection into a steam-filled horizontal pipe. The experiments have been carried out using a laboratory scale experimental facility that has been set-up in the Heat Power Laboratory of Jadavpur University. The experiments are carried out for two different initial steam pressure (2 and 3 bar) conditions and a pressure difference ranging from 1 to 3 bar between the water and steam sections. The pressure and temperature data are recorded at different salient locations within the test section. Temporal changes in temperature give an indication of water-front propagation within the test section. Observation reveals that no distinct pressure peak occurs when the pressure difference remains lowest, irrespective of the initial steam pressure within the test section. Distinct pressure peaks are, however, noticed at higher pressure differences. The amplitude of the pressure peaks is also observed to increase with the pressure difference. The maximum pressure peak amplitude, considering all the experiments, is observed to be approximately 6.08 bar at a distance of 1.51 m from the water inlet. These pressure peaks are attributed to the rapid collapse of vapour pockets when the corresponding locations become filled with subcooled water.

Temporal changes in water temperature and salinity drive the formation of a reversible plastic-specific microbial community.

Plastic is a ubiquitous pollutant in the marine environment. Here, we investigated how temporal changes in environmental factors affect the microbial communities formed on plastic (polyethylene terephthalate; PET) versus a ceramic substrate. In situ mesocosms (N = 90 replicates) were deployed at the sediment-water interface of a coastal lagoon and sampled every 4 weeks for 424 days. Sequencing data (16S rRNA) was parsed based on variation in temperature with the exposure starting in fall 2016 and remaining in situ through the next four seasons (winter, spring, summer and fall 2017). PET biofilms were distinct during the summer when salinity and temperature were highest. In particular, a significant shift in the relative abundance of Ignavibacteriales and Cytophagales was observed during the summer, but PET and ceramic communities were again indistinguishable the following fall. Water temperature, salinity and pH were significant drivers of PET biofilm diversity as well as the relative abundance of plastic-discriminant taxa. This study illustrates the temporal and successional dynamics of PET biofilms and clearly demonstrates that increased water temperature, salinity, pH and exposure length play a role in the formation of a plastic-specific microbial community, but this specificity can be lost with a change in environmental conditions.

Mapping temporal and spatial changes in land use and land surface temperature based on MODIS data

Climate change and the rapid expansion of the built environment have intensified heat stress worldwide. Due to environmental changes and urbanization, some studies show evidence of spatial and temporal changes in heat stress. The objective of this study is to apply spatial analysis to explore temporal and spatial changes in heat stress and to conduct a comparative analysis of land surface temperature (LST) and land use. The results show a significant expansion of the areas where the LST is over 35 °C or between 30 °C and 35 °C. A comparative analysis between the expansion of areas with high LSTs and changing land use types shows that LSTs were indeed higher in 2014 than the values in 2008 and that LSTs remained relatively high in areas where the LST was over 35 °C or between 30 °C and 35 °C. The temperature variation is not significant between urban and rural areas, indicating that heat stress has been extended toward particular rural areas. The cooling effect provided by open space is not significant, so city planners should exert more effort to mitigate extreme heat stress. As a whole, heat stress does change temporally and spatially, and the results of the comparative analysis could be further referenced in future efforts to improve the ability of areas to adapt to heat stress based on various land use patterns.

Parametric investigations of magnetic nanoparticles hyperthermia in ferrofluid using finite element analysis

Recently, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) based hyperthermia therapy has gained much attention due to its therapeutic potential in biomedical applications. This necessitates the development of numerical models that can reliably predict the temporal and spatial changes of temperature during the therapy. The objective of this study is to develop a comprehensive numerical model for quantitatively estimating temperature distribution in the ferrofluid system. The reliability of the numerical model was validated by comparative analysis of temperature distribution between experimental measurements and numerical analysis based on finite element method. Our analysis showed that appropriate incorporation of the heat effects of electromagnetic energy dissipation as well as thermal radiation from the ferrofluid system to the surrounding in the modeling resulted in the estimation of temperature distribution that is in close agreement with the experimental results. In summary, our developed numerical model is useful to evaluate the thermal behavior of the ferrofluid system during the process of magnetic fluid hyperthermia.

Pyroelectric energy harvesting for dye decolorization using Ba0.9Ca0.1TiO3 ceramics

Ba0.9Ca0.1TiO3 (BCT) ceramic was prepared via a mixed-oxide route. Its microstructural characterization was done using x-ray diffraction, Raman spectrum, and scanning electron microscopy. Furthermore, its electrical properties were studied using dielectric measurement and impedance spectroscopy. BCT was also examined for the pyroelectric effect with the pyroelectric coefficient of ∼2.4 × 10−4 C/m2 K. An open circuit voltage was obtained during a temporal temperature change on BCT. Methylene blue dye degradation was recorded due to pyrocatalytic reactions in 120 heating/cooling cycles. The results show that pyrocatalysis could be an effective solution for the utilization of pyroelectric energy for water cleaning applications.

Piezo/pyro/photo‐catalysis activities in Ba0.85Ca0.15(Ti0.9Zr0.1)1‐xFexO3 ceramics

AbstractBa0.85Ca0.15(Ti0.9Zr0.1)1‐xFexO3 (x = 0, 0.5, and 1%) ceramics were studied for piezocatalysis, photocatalysis, and pyrocatalysis using dye degradation in the simulated wastewater. The effect of electrical poling was also performed and found a significant impact of poling on all three catalytic reactions. Fe decreased the optical bandgap of Ba0.85Ca0.15Ti0.9Zr0.1O3 (BCZTO) to the visible region. Bandgap for x = 0, 0.005, and 0.01 was found to be 3.14 eV, 2.75 eV, and 2.61 eV, respectively. Interestingly, visible light photocatalytic activity was observed after Fe inclusion in BCZTO lattice. These compositions have also demonstrated dye degradation under ultrasonication (piezocatalytsis) and during temporal temperature change (pyrocatalysis). Results indicate promising multicatalysis in BCZTO ceramics which can be tuned using Fe substitution.

Analytical study of transient counter-flow non-premixed combustion of biomass in presence of thermal radiation

Abstract In this study, the transient behavior of a counter-flow non-premixed combustion of dry biomass particles under thermal radiation was modeled analytically. Unsteady conservation equations for mass and energy transports are mathematically formulated in dimensional and dimensionless forms. Preheating, vaporization and reaction processes were considered as the main processes for combustion of the biomass particles. The derived analytical model was solved using an asymptotic technique. After validating our derived analytical model with experimental data, the counter-flow non-premixed combustion of dry lycopodium particles with air was investigated. First, the temporal evolutions of distributions of temperature and species mass fractions were presented and discussed. Also, the temporal changes of flame temperature and position were discussed. The influence of thermal radiation was found to be quantitatively other than qualitatively. Finally, the effects of key operating parameters, such as biomass particle diameter, and Lewis numbers of biomass and oxidizer, were studied. When the combustion process reaches steady state, for unity Lewis number, maximum values of flame temperature with and without the radiative heat losses are equal to 1650 K and 1910 K at t = 0.02 s , respectively.

Principal component analysis for dynamic thermal video analysis

Objective: Current methods for the analysis of dynamic thermal video data from human participants, such as the estimation of mean temperatures from manually selected regions of interest, are rudimentary and provide very limited insight on temperature dynamics. This work proposes a method for the decomposition and analysis of dynamic thermal data to identify different sources of temporal temperature changes in the data. Methods: Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to thermal video data to identify different sources of changes in temperature. The implemented algorithms were applied on dynamic thermal data of a thermally passive, inanimate object as well as thermal video data of the plantar aspect of human feet. Results: Different sources of temperature variations, consisting of a combination of passive surface cooling, environmental processes and physiological processes were identified. The passive cooling of the skin, typically observed during acclimatization, was noted to last over 60 min, much longer than the five to 20 min durations suggested in the literature. The decomposition that results from the proposed method uncovers underlying temperature dynamics that would typically not emerge from conventional analysis approaches since these would be overshadowed by this passive cooling component. Significance: This method of decomposition of the temporal changes in dynamic thermal data can provide a deeper understanding of the processes driving the temperature changes. The code for the developed algorithms has been made available online in the form of Python and Matlab functions, together with the results presented in this paper, and can be accessed from https://github.com/gaucijean/ThermoSuite.

An Insight to the Role of Thermal Effects on the Onset of Atrioesophageal Fistula: A Computer Model of Open-Irrigated Radiofrequency Ablation.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common heart rhythm disorder in the world. Radiofrequency catheter ablation (RFCA) has become the preferred method of treatment for drug-refractory AF. One of the rare (< 0.2%) but deadly (≈ 80%) complications of RFCA is Atrioesophageal fistula (AEF). Although the exact pathophysiological events in developing AEF are not fully understood, one hypothesis is that the underlying cause may be thermal damage to the mucosa (the esophagus lumen). The present study reports on a computer model of RFCA in the posterior wall of the left atrium (LA) which is in close proximity to the esophagus. A novel systematic approach was taken by considering a range of anatomical variations (obtained from clinical data) to study the spatial and temporal temperature data when RF energy was applied to cause a threshold temperature of 50 °C in the mucosa. The model is also used to investigate the spatial and temporal changes in mucosal temperature that may affect the reliability of the readings from esophageal temperature monitoring devices if they are not positioned accurately. The results suggest evidence of transmural esophageal lesions in all the anatomies except one, if the 50 °C temperature threshold is the only criteria used for identification of thermal damage. However, by taking into consideration the effect of time (temperature-time integral), only some anatomies were identified as being partially damaged. Investigating the temperature and the temperature gradient data during the ablation revealed that the increases in both the temperature and the temperature gradient were time, location and anatomy dependent. This finding may have significance in the design and development of next-generation temperature monitoring devices that will provide a temperature map rather than single point measurements. Studies such as the present work may provide more convenient platforms for investigating the effect of the many factors involved in the RF procedure and how they may link to the development of AEF.