Temple Sculpture Research Articles

The Evolution of Odissi Dance: from Temple Rituals to Modern Revival

Odissi dance, originating from the ancient temples of Odisha, India, has evolved from a sacred ritual performed by temple dancers (Maharis) to a renowned classical art form. This essay explores the historical progression of Odissi, highlighting key transformations, including the decline of Maharis and the emergence of Gotipuas—a class of boy dancers trained in acrobatics and religious expression. The 20th century marked a significant revival, spearheaded by figures like Kalicharan Patnaik and initiatives such as the Jayantika project, which standardized and codified the dance. Odissi's modern form integrates elements from ancient texts, temple sculptures, and regional music, characterized by its expressive storytelling (Abhinaya) and intricate movements. Today, Odissi is celebrated globally for its grace, emotional depth, and cultural richness, standing as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of this ancient dance tradition.

Sculptural Display of the Smintheion in Troas: visual rhetoric in the context of a Hellenistic sanctuary

The temple of Apollo Smintheus near the village of Gülpınar (north-western Turkey, Troas) is undoubtedly among the most important monuments of the Hellenistic Age. The latest publications on the temple and sanctuary complex allow a more accurate and precise assessment of this remarkable building. Apollo bearing the epithet “Smintheus” (“Lord of mice”) appears in the opening lines of the Iliad and the very place of action is localized in the vicinity of Chrysa - an ancient town found near modern Göztepe, not far from Smintheion. These “Homeric” associations are reflected in the sculptural decoration of the temple: its frieze depicts scenes from the Iliad and later epic poems. Such a representation of the Trojan cycle, as a continuous narrative with direct reference to Homer and post-Homeric texts, has no precedent in earlier temple sculptures. In addition to the continuous frieze in the entablature, the sculptural decoration of the temple included columnae caelatae of two types - ornamental and figurative ones. Being placed on the top of the columns they formed a single semantic and visual unit with the frieze. In the present article the reach sculptural display of the temple is carefully analyzed. The author demonstrates the way in which various visual languages - narrative, associative, and symbolic - were involved in the mechanisms of creating memory, maintaining the aristocratic ideology and specific aspects of the local cult.

Decriminalisation of Homosexuality - Corrupting Indian Culture through Westernisation?

Homosexuals have been cast out as sinners and anomalies worldwide, while even being criminalised in some countries, like India, which uphold religious sentiments to advocate its criminalisation. Heterosexuality has been accepted as Nature’s default, the “normal”, banishing any other sexual orientation. It is little known how a variety of sexual orientations were accepted and celebrated in various cultures, prior to the colonisation of those countries. The physiognomy and dress of “natives” often confounded Europeans’ notions of gender propriety and sexuality, whether it was due to the long grown hair of Ceylon men, or the dangerously oversexed Black African men or the perceived sexual voracity of Arabs - casual perceptions that often reflected Europeans’ insecurities turned into obsessions about “native” sexual misconduct, provoking new sorts of sexual regulation and repression. A closer look at the history of homosexuality in India brings its colonial legacy in the limelight. A read of the Indian scriptures and ancient texts provides evidence that unlike popular belief, homosexuality and cross dressing has been widely represented and accepted in the Pre-colonial India. The criminalisation of same sex relations is both culturally and legally, a British construct. My crucial question then, is what allows politicians and courts to carelessly wield “culture and tradition” to prove decriminalisation of homosexuality as a sin? How is decriminalisation not westernisation or not simply a result of the fascination with western concepts? The aim of my research is to take a closer look at the history of the LGBTQIA++ community in India, especially referring to the Indian scriptures and sacred texts to bring out an argument that the criminalisation of homosexuality in India has been entirely a British construct. It is to look at the instruments that allow politicians and courts to advocate Section 377 by citing Indian tradition and culture to prove homosexuality as unnatural, abhorrent and a sin. The objective of this paper is to argue against the commonly believed idea that “Gay rights” is a ‘western’ concept and decriminalisation of homosexuality is a brutal ‘westernisation’ of India’s ‘culture’ and ‘tradition’ thus coorrupting it. This paper is aimed to prove the existence, celebration and acceptance of homosexuality in pre-colonial Indian culture through numerous readings of sacred texts, scriptures as well as taking a look at Temple sculptures and art.

Rama Ravana Battle Scenes in Tamil Temple Sculptures

The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are immortal epics that are the treasury of Indian culture. Both epics convey the values and ideals that people need. The Ramayana written in the Northern language by Valmiki is in some way the source for other Indian language Ramayanas. Kambana in Tamil and Konaputharetti in Telugu have composed Kambaramayana and Iranganatha Ramayana respectively. Sculptures can be found in the temples of Tamil Nadu including these three language Ramayanas. Thus, it is possible to realize that literature and art are interrelated. Many of the Alvars in the Vaishnava literary four-thousandth Prabhupada exemplify the message of Ramavatara. Among the Alvars, Kulasekara gives the Ramavatara reference. References to the Ramayana are also baked into vegetarian literature. The Ashoka Pillar of the Mauryan period is the beginning of the stone sculpture. Horoscope Ramayana messages in India are inscribed on Buddhist monuments. Although Rama, Krishna and Narasimhan are notable among the three incarnations of the Vaishnava deity Thirumal in Tamil Nadu, the influence on the Ramayana is due to the large number of sculptures about Rama. The Vedic Cholas in Tamil Nadu have created Vaishnava Ramayana sculptures in their temples. The influence of Vaishnavism was greatest during the Vijayanagara Nayak period following the Chola period. The Vijayanagara Nayaks built roundabouts, planes, towers, etc., along with the foundations of the temple. Of these, sculptures were placed on stones and sutas. Ravanavatha is featured in the war to fulfill the purpose of Ramavatar. The battle of Rama Ravana and Ravanavatha can be seen in the temples of Tamil Nadu as sculptures of this event.

TALE OF HANUMA?N’S ENCOUNTER WITH KA?LANE?MI: GLEANINGS THROUGH LITERATURE AND ART

Hanuman is well known throughout India and beyond its frontiers as the saviour of the distressed, as the epitome of the great strength, courage and as a loyal, faithful, and a staunch devotee of Ra?ma and as the hero of the epic, Ra?ma?ya?a. He is represented in the literature and visual arts as a great leader of the monkey army who helped Ra?ma on different occasions such as in the search for Si?ta who was abducted by the demon-king Ra?va?a deceitfully from Pañchavat?i in the absence of Ra?ma and his brother; in the battle against Ra?va?a and in bringing back Lakshman? a to consciousness when he swooned in the battle-field, by bringing the medicinal herbs from Dro??a?dri mountains etc., Because of the multifarious activities performed by Hanuma?n that helped Ra?ma, very soon he became not only the favourite hero of the public but also an individual god of great importance for whom several temples or shrines were built all over India. In South India particularly during the medieval times, he became the central hero of vernacular literature, especially folk stories, and he is well represented in the temple sculptures. Although Va?lmi?ki’sRa?ma?ya?a was popular in its usage we find its translations in different South Indian languages with some additions and omissions. Owing to the interpolations in Va?lmi?ki’s work and the composition of Ra?ma?ya?a in different vernaculars, prince Ra?ma, son of Da?aratha came to be interpreted as an incarnation of the god Vishn? u and accordingly we find the portrayal of the human-like figure of Ra?ma holding a bow and an arrow in his two hands along with the other incarnation forms of Vish?u in temple sculptures. On the other hand, Hanuma?n is shown mostly as acknowledging the divine power of Ra?ma or in the act of performing the heroic exploits as the leader of the va?naras. It is proposed to discuss the portrayal of Hanuma?n in art, especially his encounter with the demon Ka?lane?mi.

HUMANITY'S TRYST IN DECIPHERING MARRIAGES FROM MYTHOLOGY: BRAIDING LITERATURE AND ART

Studying Anthropology of Art has been a matter of long-term qualitative research studied under Cultural Anthropology. Understanding Anthropology of Art is therefore something which involves transcending over the regimented boundaries of culture and art. Entering this complex process of interpreting anthropological aspects, we delved deep into the context and examination of Indian art and iconography. Our heritage has evidently focused very strongly on the meaningfulness of art to society, interpreting human cognition into a concrete order. The depiction of the divine union of Shiva-Parvati, is thematically represented extensively in Indian sculpture art. Regrettably, this very fascinating matter did not receive a very comprehensive consideration so far. Our purpose for undertaking this analysis is to reckon wisdom of the extant of incorporating mythological culture and rituals into present human society, diverse expressions of art, associated with different age and time period, all with a single awe-inspiring theme- The Marriage of Shiva and Parvati. Thereafter, keeping in mind the textual references available, we have kept ourselves restricted to the study, strictly coinciding with the theme depicted in Indian sculpture. Indian art has an immense affinity towards mythology and depiction of the events in a cosmic scale. Indian temple sculpture is a celebration of the divine ceremonies. Doing this, we find relevant textual interpretations and references from Kalidas’ Kumarasambhava, an epic recounting the events leading to the ‘Kalyanasundara’- the iconographical depiction of the wedding rites of Shiva and Parvati and the birth of Kartika, making the art study an extension of literary apotheosis. KEYWORDS: Anthropology of Art, Cultural Anthropology, Indian Art and Sculpture, Kumarsambhava

European perceptions of religion and society in 18th-century China & Bengal, and their subverted gaze in local art and encounter

ABSTRACTThis essay presents two late 18th century European travelers’ encounters with and perceptions of religion in Chinese and Indian societies. While C.L.J De Guignes made an extensive tour of Chinese pagodas, Balthazar Solvyns was depicting Bengali people in 1794. Both traveler's works reveal a lineage of ideas involving exoticism and early-modern orientalism. While creating images of religion based on superstition and alterity, they did not take into account how the gaze was reversed unto them. While Solvyns created images of ‘the Hindoos’, Bengali artists were depicting the European colonial presence in scroll paintings and temple sculptures. These depictions may be considered as mimetic practices subverting the relational gaze, incorporating the European presence in order to overcome it. Contrasting early ethnographical European descriptions of Asian religions with their original contexts, a subverted gaze shines back upon the self-image of early modern European scholars seeking to make exotic Asian religions ‘known’.

The Voice of the Sculptures: How the ‘Language of Dance’ Can Be Used to Interpret Temple Sculptures. An Example from the Hoysaḷeśvara Temple at Haḷebīd

The Voice of the Sculptures: How the ‘Language of Dance’ Can Be Used to Interpret Temple Sculptures. An Example from the Hoysaḷeśvara Temple at Haḷebīd

Sun Worship Of The Bai People And Its Reflection In The Folk Art Zhima Of The Yunnan Province

The article is dedicated to the research of the Sun worship practiced by the Bai people, who live in the Yunnan Province in the south-west of China. Various forms of the Sun Cult taking place nowadays within the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture are examined. The author presents the texts of the Bai myths and legends associated with the solar deity Tai Yang Shen and describes the traditions of worshipping the Sun as a source of life, a protector of agriculture and a divine patron of Bai villages. The article also analyses the iconography of the solar deity in the Yunnan Province’s temple sculpture and folk woodprints zhima. The origin of diverse Tai Yang Shen’s iconographic types is traced back through the study of the local legends and Chinese art. Special attention is paid to the solar symbols that appear in the Yunnan zhimas. Key words: solar deity, Tai Yang Shen, solar symbols, legend, folk beliefs, mythology, folk art zhima, image of fire sphere.

Indian Temple Sculpture. By John Guy. pp. 192. London, Victoria and Albert Museum Publications, 2007.

Indian Temple Sculpture. By John Guy. pp. 192. London, Victoria and Albert Museum Publications, 2007.

The mridangam: A study of the history and acoustics of an ancient South Indian drum

The acoustical properties of the South Indian drum, the mridangam, were studied. The barrel-shaped mridangam has been described in ancient Hindu scriptures and depicted in cave paintings and temple sculptures. With a claimed antiquity dating back to the Vedic period, it is the principal percussion instrument in South Indian classical music and dance and possesses unique tonal properties. The mridangam is comprised of three primary parts: The tonal head (valanthalai), the bass head (thoppi), and the central shell (kattai), to which the two heads are traditionally fastened by leather rope. Measurements of modes and mode frequencies were made on traditional drums, as well as on drums where the heads were remounted using a new and user-friendly design. Measurements of drumhead vibration and sound spectra were also made when the drumhead was excited by a skilled player using standard strokes. The frequencies of the first few modes of the tonal head were found, as expected, to be tuned approximately harmonic. Practical performance variables, including effects of altering mounting tension and coupling between the drumheads, were also studied. Results from the study will be followed by a practical demonstration of the instrument.

Himalayas: An Aesthetic Adventure

This sweeping survey of the artistic achievements of Himalayan culture is the first major exhibition to include objects from all the major religions of the region. Created to accompany the landmark art exhibition that will include almost two hundred of the finest works of art created between the sixth and nineteenth centuries in India, Nepal, Tibet, and Bhutan, this book explores the particular beauty that evolved from the spiritual traditions unique to the Himalayas. Lavishly illustrated with many rarely seen images, Himalayas conveys the spiritual aspirations of those who defied the physical hardships of an arduous mountain terrain to express their soaring creative spirit. Currently held in private and public collections in North America and Europe, seventy percent of this art has never been published or publicly exhibited. The works include temple sculptures of stone and wood; works in terracotta; cast bronzes with inlaid gemstones, gilding, and paint; colorful paintingsfrom reverential portraits to depictions of awe-inspiring deitieson cloth, palm leaf, paper, and wood; and ritual objects in various media. Pratapaditya Pal provides a fascinating description of the cultural milieu in which these works of art were created. Copublished with the Art Institute of Chicago

Hierarchies of value at Angkor Wat

The recent explosion of theft in sculpture from Angkor era temples in Cambodia raises questions about the circumstances that make such destructive acts possible at these historically sacred Khmer sites. This paper looks at the commodification of and traffic in temple sculpture in relation to a particular way of classifying and evaluating the temples. It considers different systems of classification and theories of value that have converged on the temples at different moments in history, and the politics behind the ascendance of particular value systems. It uses Arjun Appadurai's concept of a ‘regime of value’ to illuminate the intersection of many different value systems at the temples today, and to shed light on the contradictory mix of conservation and exploitation, scholarship and commerce, preservation and development, which co‐exist at these now‐international heritage sites.

The Two-Headed Deer: Illustrations of the Ramayana in Orissa

India's epic poem, the Ramayana, is a dramatic, ever-evolving tale of a prince and his bride, their adventures and dilemmas, and demons. Joanna Williams studies the art of the Ramayana in Orissa, a region known for its elegantly carved temples. There she researched both literary and visual art works, interviewed artists, and observed them at work. With depth and originality, Williams considers Indian art tells a story in distinctive ways. Her narratological study takes into account many familiar genres of visual art: illustrated manuscripts, drawings on palm leaf paper, wall paintings, shadow plays, temple sculpture, and painted cloth pata. Included are discussions of pan-Indian versions of the epic, which include film, video, and the comic strip; and those local to Orissa, including rural theatre and festivals. Noting that we often treat images designed to be seen in sequence as separate pictures, Williams argues that con-sidering several Ramayana images in sequence reveals their qualities of variety, surprise, and emotional development, promoting an understanding of how the story is told. She discusses the artists' narrative strategies and offers interpretations of and why artists made their choices. Williams persuasively argues against critics who believe that Indian art, indeed any traditional art, is conventional and lacks individual technique or vision. Her analysis across a variety of genres offers a new model for art historians; at the same time anthropologists, folklorists, and scholars of literature and narratology will find her work of great value.

Gods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculptures from North India, A.D. 700—1200. Edited by Vishakha N. Desai and Darielle Mason. New York and Ahmedabad: The Asia Society Galleries and Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd., 1993. 288 pp. $65.00.

Gods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculptures from North India, A.D. 700—1200. Edited by Vishakha N. Desai and Darielle Mason. New York and Ahmedabad: The Asia Society Galleries and Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd., 1993. 288 pp. $65.00. - Volume 53 Issue 2

Gods, guardians, and lovers: temple sculptures from North India, A.D. 700-1200

Gods, guardians, and lovers: temple sculptures from North India, A.D. 700-1200

Gods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculptures from North India, A. D. 700-1200

Gods, Guardians, and Lovers: Temple Sculptures from North India, A. D. 700-1200

Indian Temple Sculpture

Indian Temple Sculpture

Maize ears not sculpted in 13th century Somnathpur temple in India

Economic Botany 47(2)202-205. 1993. The contention that objects in the hands of male and female deities sculpted on the exterior of the Kesav Temple at Somnathpur near the city of Mysore, Karnataka State, India, represent maize ears is rejected on linguistic, religious, sculptural, archaeological, agricultural, and botanical grounds. The stone inscriptions associated with the temple list items or commodities used in worship, maize is not included. We find no evidence for maize figuring in any kind of religious ritual or worship. The word for maize used currently in the Kannada language is “Musukin Jola” which refers to a kind of millet resembling sorghum (“jola”). This appellation is of recent origin and does not appear in any literary work contemporary with the period of construction of Somnathpur temple. The wall images do not fully simulate in form and proportion the actual human figures. The beaded ornamentation, likewise, of the hand-held object shows considerable variation and its comparison whether on qualitative or quantitative basis with actual maize kernels of both primitive and modern maize is inappropriate. The variation inform and proportion and stylistic features of these objects is ascribed to their being the work of different sculptors. Maize now grown near the temple comprises modern cultivars, especially hybrids released during the early 1960’s. It is inconceivable that none of the primitive and advanced types of maize purported to be represented in the temple sculpture would have been considered worthy of cultivation from the thirteenth century to the present time. We hold that these temple sculptures do not represent maize or its ear but an imaginary fruit bearing pearls known in Sanskrit as “Muktaphala.”

Pagans Hill Revisited

This report reviews and updates the evidence from the Roman temple site of Pagans Hill, Chew Stoke, North Somerset, which was partly excavated between 1949 and 1953. This includes a revised terminus post quem for the initial building of the temple complex of c. A.D. 262 and an emphasis of the importance of the location of the well on the axis of a planned layout. This is accompanied by a resume of a reassessment by George Boon of the sculpture of the torso of a dog found in the well in 1951; this was formerly dated to the sixteenth century, but is now redated to the Roman period, and assigned to a group of temple sculpture. This has also stimulated discussion about the dedication of the temple, possibly to Apollo Cunomaglus. There is also a new review by Professor Vera Evison of the Anglo-Saxon glass jar from the temple well and other comparable vessels.A further excavation in 1986 clarified certain ambiguous points in the earlier work, and added some new data, notably of prehistoric (Neolithic/Early Bron...