Tempering Treatment Research Articles

Alterations in the diversity and composition of mice gut microbiota by lytic or temperate gut phage treatment.

Phages, the most abundant species in the mammalian gut, have numerous advantages as biocontrol agent over antibiotics. In this study, mice were orally treated with the lytic gut phage PA13076 (group B), the temperate phage BP96115 (group C), no phage (group A), or streptomycin (group D) over 31days. At the end of the experiment, fecal microbiota diversity and composition was determined and compared using high-throughput sequencing of the V3-V4 hyper-variable region of the 16S rRNA gene and virus-like particles (VLPs) were quantified in feces. There was high diversity and richness of microbiota in the lytic and temperate gut phage-treated mice, with the lytic gut phage causing an increased alpha diversity based on the Chao1 index (p < 0.01). However, the streptomycin treatment reduced the microbiota diversity and richness (p = 0.0299). Both phage and streptomycin treatments reduced the abundance of Bacteroidetes at the phylum level (p < 0.01) and increased the abundance of the phylum Firmicutes. Interestingly, two beneficial genera, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, were enhanced by treatment with the lytic and temperate gut phage. The abundance of the genus Escherichia/Shigella was higher in mice after temperate phage administration than in the control group (p < 0.01), but lower than in the streptomycin group. Moreover, streptomycin treatment increased the abundance of the genera Klebsiella and Escherichia/Shigella (p < 0.01). In terms of the gut virome, fecal VLPs did not change significantly after phage treatment. This study showed that lytic and temperate gut phage treatment modulated the composition and diversity of gut microbiota and the lytic gut phage promoted a beneficial gut ecosystem, while the temperate phage may promote conditions enabling diseases to occur.

The Effect of Microstructural Characteristics on the Hydrogen Permeation Transient in Quenched and Tempered Martensitic Alloys

This work evaluates the permeation curve characteristics for four quenched and tempered generic, ternary alloys, each containing one specific carbide. The different carbides (W2C, Cr23C6, TiC, and V4C3, respectively) are induced by a quench and tempering treatment. The correlation is made between the different microstructural characteristics, including the carbides and the martensitic matrix, and the observed hydrogen diffusivity and thus the permeation transient. The permeation curves, obtained via the Devanathan and Stachurski method, are therefore compared with thermal desorption spectroscopy and hot extraction results. The delay of the permeation transient can be associated with the overall trap density, while the slope is related to the amount of reversible trapping sites. Generally, the obtained hydrogen permeation transient of the different ternary or Fe–C–X materials correlates with the hydrogen trapping ability. The following order of hydrogen diffusion is determined, i.e., Fe–C–V &lt; Fe–C–Ti &lt;&lt; Fe–C–Cr &lt; Fe–C–W. The hydrogen trapping ability of the tempered induced carbides plays a decisive role in the value of the hydrogen diffusion coefficient.

Dependence of austenite stability and deformation behavior on tempering time in an ultrahigh strength medium Mn TRIP steel

In the present study, the microstructure, tensile property and deformation behavior were investigated in Fe-8Mn-8Al-0.8C steel after quenching and tempering treatment (Q&T). The steel exhibited a ferrite-austenite-martensite mixed microstructure, and a good combination of ultrahigh ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of ~1500 MPa and total elongation (TE) of ~30%. The tensile property was improved after tempering at 200 °C, which is mainly due to an improvement of austenite stability. Tempering process promoted the uniform distribution of carbon element in austenite, resulting in an elimination of the serrated behavior in the strain hardening rate curve. The element partitioning from the supersaturated martensite and δ-ferrite to austenite during tempering, as well as its contributing effects to austenite stability, was also discussed. Two methods were used to quantitatively monitor austenite stability as a function of tempering time with regard to transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) effect. After an optimal tempering treatment at 200 °C for 60 min, the continuous strain-induced martensite transformation resulting from an optimized austenite stability led to an ultrahigh tensile strength and a product of strength and elongation (PSE) of 41 GPa·%. A fracture transition from brittle cleavage to ductile fracture was observed, which is due to variation of the local stress distribution between coarse δ-ferrite and adjacent austenite.

Effect of Destabilisation and Tempering Heat Treatments on Hardness and Corrosion Behavior of 28 wt.%Cr Cast Irons with Mo Addition

The effects of destabilisation and tempering heat treatments on hardness and corrosion behavior in 28 wt.%Cr-2.6 wt.%C cast irons with up to 6 wt.%Mo addition were studied. The irons were destabilised at 1025 °C for 4 h and air cooled. Tempering was carried out at 450 °C for 4 h. Phase identification and microstructure were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), light microscope (LM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Vickers macro-hardness was measured. A potentiodynamic technique was used to indicate aqueous corrosion resistance. The results revealed that the as-cast microstructure of 28 wt.%Cr iron consisted of primary austenite dendrites with eutectic M7C3 carbides. In the irons with 6 wt.%Mo addition, eutectic carbides including M7C3, M23C6 and M6C were found. After destabilisation, the microstructure contained secondary carbide precipitates within an essentially martensitic matrix. Vickers macro-hardness of the as-cast and destabilised irons increased from 500 HV30 and 736 HV30 in the 28 wt.%Cr iron up to 570 HV30 and 870 HV30 in the iron with 6 wt.%Mo addition. Tempering slightly increased the macro-hardness. The as-cast 28 wt.%Cr iron had the lowest values for critical current density and passive current density. The destabilised + tempered treatment gave the lowest corrosion resistance.

Abrasive Wear in Punching Pin with Cryogenic Treatment for GPa-Grade Steels

The increasing application of GPa-grade steel to autobody panels has led to increasing problems related to abrasive wear in mold and tool surfaces, which dramatically degrades tool life and also degrades the surface finish of the final product. This paper mainly concerns the punching wear resistance imparted by cryogenic (CR) and quenching and tempering (QT) treatments, as well as the additional use of a TiN coating layer. This is investigated using pin-on-disk tests and punching experiments against DP980 sheets for up to 90,000 cycles. The wear coefficient of CR is about 10% greater than that of QT, which leads to a decelerated punching pin wear rate relative to QT starting at around the 70,000th cycle. To numerically predict abrasive wear, we newly propose that the wear coefficients of the substrate should be updated as a function of the clearance stage to improve the accuracy and efficiency of the wear analysis.

Tribological Performance of Austempered and Tempered Ductile Iron

Austempered ductile iron with its unique ausferritic structure is produced by an isothermal heat treatment process. Austempered ductile iron is a potential material to substitute for traditional steel castings and forgings in current industry due to its excellent mechanical properties. The tempering process is frequently used to enhance the ductility and toughness of a material and reduce residual stress. In this research, the phase transformation of austempered ductile iron was studied by applying various tempering temperatures with constant holding duration. It was found that the ausferritic structure was decomposed into dispersive cementite particles after receiving a tempering temperature of 538 °C or higher. The specific amount of retained austenite was analyzed by X-ray diffraction. The wear resistance of tempered austempered ductile iron was investigated by using a ball-on-disk sliding test configuration. The results were compared with conventional quenched and tempered ductile iron under equivalent hardness. Both austempered ductile iron and tempered austempered ductile iron samples had better wear resistance than quenched and tempered ductile iron. The results presented in this research can be utilized as a reference in the tempering treatment of austempered ductile iron material for future applications.

Effect of Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Properties of High Boron-High Speed Steel

A new type of high boron-high speed steel (HB-HSS) with different boron content was selected for oil quenching at 1050 °C, and different temperature of tempering treatment was chosen. By using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Rockwell hardness tester, red hard treatment and wear test, the effects of heat treatment on microstructure and properties of HB-HSS were investigated. The experimental results indicate that the quenching microstructure of HB-HSS consists of α-Fe, M2(B, C), M7(B, C)3 and a few of M23(C, B)6. When the tempering temperature is lower than 500 °C, the shape of carboborides will change from discontinuous sheet to continuous net, and the uniformity in microstructure is improved, and the hardness is not changed during the process. When the tempering temperature is higher than 500 °C, the continuous net of M2(B, C) is recovered. When the tempering temperature is higher than 600 °C, the microstructure of HB-HSS get thickened because of overheating, and the hardness get significantly reduced. With the increase of tempering temperature, the weight loss of the sample is decreased, and the wear resistance of the sample is increased. When tempering temperature exceeds 500 °C, the weight loss of the sample has an obvious increase and its wear resistance decreases. The wear resistance of the sample decreases after the red-hardness treatment. The wear loss is about 8.4 mg when the boron content is 2.0% and the tempering temperature is 500 °C, which is the best of test samples.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of a Mo alloyed high chromium cast iron after different heat treatments

In the present study, 6 wt% Mo was added into high chromium cast iron (HCCI, 16 wt% Cr), and the effects of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of the base and alloyed HCCI were investigated. A ledeburite matrix and Mo-rich M2C were obtained besides M7C3 in the as-cast alloyed HCCI. During the soaking process of the destabilization treatment, amounts of secondary carbides (M23C6) precipitated out of austenite. Martenstic transformation of matrix occurred in the forced air cooling process. Most of the M2C decomposed into bright white fishbone M6C and punctate MC. The overall hardness of alloyed HCCI increased due to the presence of Mo-rich carbides and martensite matrix with secondary carbides. Comparing with the destabilized sample, the toughness of the alloyed HCCI improved and the hardness decreased after tempering treatment, and the toughness of the alloyed HCCI increased with the increase of tempering temperature. The abrasive wear resistance of the HCCI improved with the addition of Mo after heat treatment, and the QT500 sample had the optimal wear volume loss. The abrasive wear resistance decreased with the increase of tempering temperature, due to the exsolution of C atoms in the martensitic matrix.

Hydrogen embrittlement behavior of high strength bainitic rail steel: Effect of tempering treatment

Abstract The present study was attempted to evaluate the effect of tempering treatment on the hydrogen embrittlement (HE) behavior of a novel bainitic rail steel by using slow strain rate test (SSRT) with notched round bar specimens. The microstructure of the as-hot rolled rail steel mainly consists of granular bainite and ~9 vol% martensite. It was found that tempering treatment could increase the HE resistance and decrease the susceptibility to HE of the as-hot rolled bainitic rail steel except at temper embrittlement temperature of ~400 °C, and excellent HE properties could be obtained when tempered at 500 °C at less expense of strength and ductility. The enhanced HE properties are ascribed mainly to the gradual decomposition of blocky M/A constituents as well as the tempering of the martensite. It is thus suggested that suitable tempering after hot rolling could be applied to enhance the HE properties as well as to obtain maximum mechanical properties, and thus to guarantee the safety of bainitic steel rails in service.

Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical Behaviours of Tempered 2.25Cr–1Mo Steel Through Electromagnetic Characterization

The effect of tempering treatment has been investigated on water quenched P22 steel with the chemical composition of 0.13C, 0.24Si, 0.47Mn, 0.012P, 0.005S, 2.19Cr, 0.93Mo and balance Fe (all in wt%) within the temperature ranges of 650–900 °C. The microstructural, mechanical and magnetic properties of as-quenched and tempered steels have been investigated through optical and scanning electron microscopy, hardness and universal tensile testing, electromagnetic sensor (Magstar), respectively. The water quenched sample consists of fine martensitic structure with a hardness of 381 HV. With the progress of tempering, the martensite becomes coarse till 800 °C, decreasing the hardness of steel samples. The tempering at 700 °C results in martensite coarsening and precipitation of rod and globular shaped carbides; while a fraction of globular carbide is observed to increase in the matrix after 750 °C of tempering. Beyond 800 °C, the ferrite and bainite phases gradually form by replacing martensite, and the ferrite structure is prevalent after 900 °C. Due to microstructural changes, the magnetic properties are also affected as a function of tempering temperature. The coarsening of martensite causes the decrease in coercivity with increasing tempering temperature, leading to magnetic softening.

Effect of tempering treatment upon the residual stress of bimetallic roll

Bimetallic rolls are widely used in steel rolling industries because of the excellent hardness, wear resistance, and high temperature properties. However, thermal stress is produced by heating-cooling thermal cycles, which is a great challenge for their practical application. Indeed, if severe thermal tensile stress is introduced into these rolls, it can assist the thermal cracks to propagate, even lead to the overall failure of rolls. In this paper, we investigated the effect of tempering treatment on the residual stress after the bimetallic rolls were subjected to quenching. Compared with the non-uniform heating-quenching process, the tempering process makes the maximum stress at the core decreased by 15% (from 275 MPa to 234 MPa) with considering martensite transformation but decreased by 26% (from 275 MPa to 201 MPa) without considering martensite transformation. For tempering process after uniform heating quenching, the maximum stress at the core decreases by 24% from 357 MPa to 273 MPa with considering martensite transformation but decreases by 30% from 357 MPa to 246 MPa without considering martensite transformation. And compared with the non-uniform heating-quenching process, the double tempering process makes the maximum stress at the core decreased by 8% (from 275 MPa to 253 MPa) with considering martensite transformation but decreased by 27% (from 275 MPa to 200 MPa) without considering martensite transformation.

Abrasive wear resistance of modified X37CrMoV5-1 hot work tool steel after conventional and laser heat treatment

AbstractThe effects of two conventional heat treatments and one innovative processing by laser surface remelting of modified X37CrMoV5-1 tool steel on its abrasion wear resistance were investigated. Conventional heat treatments consisted of quenching from 990 °C, individually followed by two different tempering treatments to achieve secondary hardness either at 520 °C or 560 °C. Laser surface remelting was performed using optimized parameters of continuous laser beam scanning mode. The results showed that the highest wear resistance was obtained for almost carbide-free, surface remelted microstructure with the highest hardness due to microstructural refinement and martensitic transformation hardening. The observed differences in wear resistance among individual material states are discussed in relation to their microstructures, hardness, and wear mechanisms characteristics.

Effect of sigma phase precipitation on microstructure and properties of cast ZG0Cr26Ni5Mo3Cu3 duplex stainless steel under different heat treatments

ZG0Cr26Ni5Mo3Cu3 Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS) was solution treated at 1,060 ºC for 3 h, followed by water cooling. Tempering treatments were conducted at 720, 750 and 780 ºC, respectively, for 16 h, followed by air cooling. The microstructures of ZG0Cr26Ni5Mo3Cu3 duplex stainless steel samples treated at different tempering temperatures were observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy dispersal spectroscopy (EDS), and the phase consitutions were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD). The effects of the precipitation of sigma (σ) phase on the duplex phase percentage, hardness, impact toughness and corrosion resistance of the DSS were studied. Results showed that microstructures of ZG0Cr26Ni5Mo3Cu3 after solution treatment consists of ferrite (α) phase and austenite (γ) phase; after being tempered at different temperatures, σ phase appeared due to a eutectoid-type reaction of α→σ+γ2 during tempering treatment. It was observed that σ phase distributed along the grain boundary. The volume fraction of σ and γ phases increased with increasing tempering temperature in the range of 720 to 780 ºC, whereas the volume fraction of α phase showed the opposite trend. When the percentage of σ phase increased, the hardness of steel also increased. In the solution treated steel, hardness was measured to be only 244.0 HB, because σ phase did not appear. However, it increased to 391.8 HB when the DSS was tempered at 780 ºC because a great of deal of σ phase appeared. The impact toughness and corrosion resistance of DSS decreased when the percentage of σ phase increased.

Quantagenetics® analysis of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopic data: Rapid and accurate authentication of materials

Many industrial and commercial issues involve authentication of such matters as the manufacturer or geographic source of a material, and quality control of materials, determining whether specific treatments have been properly applied, or if a material is authentic or fraudulent. Often, multiple analytical techniques and tests are used, resulting in expensive and time-consuming testing procedures. Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is a rapid laser ablation spectroscopic analytical method. Each LIBS spectrum contains information about the concentration of every element, some isotopic ratios, and the molecular structure of the material, making it a unique and comprehensive signature of the material. Quantagenetics® is a multivariate statistical method based on Bayesian statistics that uses the Euclidian distance between LIBS spectra of materials to classify materials (US Patents 9,063,085 and 8,699,022). The fundamental idea behind Quantagenetics® is that LIBS spectra contain sufficient information to determine the origin and history of materials. This study presents two case studies that illustrate the method. LIBS spectra from 510 Colombian emeralds from 18 mines were classified by mine. Overall, 99.4% of the spectra were correctly classified; the success rate for individual mines ranges from 98.2% to 100%. Some of the mines are separated by distances as little as 200 m, indicating that the method uses the slight but consistent differences in composition to identify the mine of origin accurately. The second study used bars of 17–4 stainless steel from three manufacturers. Each of the three bars was cut into 90 coupons; 30 of each bar received no further treatment, another 30 from each bar received one tempering and hardening treatment, and the final 30 coupons from each bar received a different heat treatment. Using LIBS spectra taken from the coupons, the Quantagenetics® method classified the 270 coupons both by manufacturer (composition) and heat treatment (structure) with an overall success rate of 95.3%. Individual success rates range from 92.4% to 97.6%. These case studies were successful despite having no preconceived knowledge of the materials; artificial intelligence allows the materials to classify themselves without human intervention or bias. Multivariate analysis of LIBS spectra using the Quantagenetics® method has promise to improve quality control and authentication of a wide variety of materials in industrial enterprises.

Microstructural Characterization of Ultra-High Strength Martensitic Steels

Abstract In the development of steels with increasing strength and toughness, ultra-high strength steel grades with a martensitic microstructure are gaining more importance. From the martensitic transformation product, however, strength-specific quantities derived from the former austenite grain cannot be accessed conveniently. A profound analysis of the prior austenite microstructure, its size distribution and aspect ratio is essential in order to allow conclusions on the mechanical properties. This paper presents an etchant to reveal the prior austenite grains of thermomechanical processed and press hardened martensitic steels. Furthermore, alternative detecting methods such as electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and high-temperature laser scanning confocal microscopy were evaluated. It was found that a picric-acid etchant in combination with a prior tempering treatment of the steel enables the visualization of prior austenite grains and their elongation in a micrometer-scale.

Corrosion behavior of as-weld CLAM steel after laser shock peening process and tempering in static molten lithium lead

China low activation martensitic steel was welded by gas tungsten arc welding, after that laser shock peening and tempering treatment are applied to as-weld material, its compatibility with molten lithium lead are studied. Tempering treatment weight loss is 1.32 mg/cm2 compared to LSP is 1.91 mg/cm2 after 3000 h. Tempered martensite is more excellent than coarse martensite, as-weld surface corrosion grooves are serious. Passivation layers protect the internal metal from destroy in molten metal and it firstly appeared in defective areas during LSP process. Main elements markedly reduced through dissolving into molten metal, microstructure and phase transformation took place along the whole corrosion surface.

Aplicación del ajuste de Rietveld para correlacionar la evolución microestructural de fundiciones blancas con 18 y 25% en Cromo, templadas en aceite y sucesivos revenidos, con el comportamiento frente al desgaste abrasivo y esfuerzos de flexión

Mediante la aplicación del método de afinamiento estructural de Rietveld se identificaron y cuantificaron las fases presentes en fundiciones blancas hipoeutécticas con 18 y 25% en Cromo, templadas en aceite y tras sucesivos revenidos a 500 ºC. Se correlacionaron los resultados con su comportamiento frente al desgaste abrasivo y bajo esfuerzos de flexión. En ambos casos el porcentaje de austenita retenida tras el temple resultó mínima. Durante los sucesivos revenidos, se constató en la calidad con 18% en Cromo una redisolución parcial de los carburos M7C3 junto a una transformación entre carburos mixtos secundarios M7C3 y M2C. La Martensita tras temple resultó un factor clave frente a la resistencia al desgaste abrasivo, resultando los revenidos tras el temple en aceite desfavorables para esta propiedad. La calidad con 25% en Cromo fue la que presentó un mayor contenido en martensita tras el temple, y por tanto la que mejor comportamiento presentó frente a este tipo de desgaste. Esta misma calidad, tras el doble revenido, fue la que mayor resistencia y capacidad de deformación alcanzó bajo esfuerzos a flexión. La fractura resultó frágil y mayoritariamente transgranular. Sin embargo, pudo observarse la presencia de zonas con fractura dúctil asociadas a martensita doblemente revenida.

Evaluation of Workability on the Microstructure and Mechanical Property of Modified 9Cr-2W Steel for Fuel Cladding by Cold Drawing Process and Intermediate Heat Treatment Condition

In this study, we evaluated the cold drawing workability of two kinds of modified 9Cr-2W steel containing different contents of boron and nitrogen depending on the temperature and time of normalizing and tempering treatments. Using ring compression tests at room temperature, the effect of intermediate heat treatment condition on workability was investigated. It was found that the prior austenite grain size can be changed by the austenite transformation and that the grain size increases with increasing temperature during normalizing heat treatment. Alloy B and Alloy N showed different patterns after normalizing heat treatment. Alloy N had higher stress than Alloy B, and the reduction in alloy N increased while the reduction in alloy B decreased. Alloy B showed a larger number of initially formed cracks and a larger average crack length than Alloy N. Crack length and number increased proportionally in Alloy B as the stress increased. Alloy B had lower crack resistance than Alloy N due to boron segregation.

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Highly Alloyed FeCrMoVC Steel Fabricated by Spark Plasma Sintering

In this study, we successfully fabricated highly alloyed FeCrMoVC specimens within 2 min by using the spark plasma sintering (SPS) method. The densities of the sintered specimens were almost identical to their theoretical values. Fine (Mo, V)-rich carbides with lamellar structure were precipitated along the grain boundaries of the as-sintered specimen, whereas relatively large carbides were formed additionally in the transgranular region during the tempering treatment. Compared with the specimen produced by a conventional casting method, the FeCrMoVC specimens from SPS showed smaller grain size with finer carbides and higher hardness values.

Investigation of the Microstructural Changes and Hardness Variations of Sub-Zero Treated Cr-V Ledeburitic Tool Steel Due to the Tempering Treatment

The microstructure and tempering response of Cr-V ledeburitic steel Vanadis 6 subjected to sub-zero treatment at − 196 °C for 4 h have been examined with reference to the same steel after conventional heat treatment. The obtained experimental results infer that sub-zero treatment significantly reduces the retained austenite amount, makes an overall refinement of microstructure, and induces a significant increase in the number and population density of small globular carbides with a size 100-500 nm. At low tempering temperatures, the transient M3C-carbides precipitated, whereas their number was enhanced by sub-zero treatment. The presence of chromium-based M7C3 precipitates was evidenced after tempering at the temperature of normal secondary hardening; this phase was detected along with the M3C. Tempering above 470 °C converts almost all the retained austenite in conventionally quenched specimens while the transformation of retained austenite is rather accelerated in sub-zero treated material. As a result of tempering, a decrease in the population density of small globular carbides was recorded; however, the number of these particles retained much higher in sub-zero treated steel. Elevated hardness of sub-zero treated steel can be referred to more completed martensitic transformation and enhanced number of small globular carbides; this state is retained up to a tempering temperature of around 500 °C in certain extent. Correspondingly, lower as-tempered hardness of sub-zero treated steel tempered above 500 °C is referred to much lower contribution of the transformation of retained austenite, and to an expectedly lower amount of precipitated alloy carbides.