Temperature Loggers Research Articles

A Temperature-Monitoring Vaginal Ring for Measuring Adherence

BackgroundProduct adherence is a pivotal issue in the development of effective vaginal microbicides to reduce sexual transmission of HIV. To date, the six Phase III studies of vaginal gel products have relied primarily on self-reporting of adherence. Accurate and reliable methods for monitoring user adherence to microbicide-releasing vaginal rings have yet to be established.MethodsA silicone elastomer vaginal ring prototype containing an embedded, miniature temperature logger has been developed and tested in vitro and in cynomolgus macaques for its potential to continuously monitor environmental temperature and accurately determine episodes of ring insertion and removal.Results In vitro studies demonstrated that DST nano-T temperature loggers encapsulated in medical grade silicone elastomer were able to accurately and continuously measure environmental temperature. The devices responded quickly to temperature changes despite being embedded in different thickness of silicone elastomer. Prototype vaginal rings measured higher temperatures compared with a subcutaneously implanted device, showed high sensitivity to diurnal fluctuations in vaginal temperature, and accurately detected periods of ring removal when tested in macaques.ConclusionsVaginal rings containing embedded temperature loggers may be useful in the assessment of product adherence in late-stage clinical trials.

Local-scale spatial modelling for interpolating climatic temperature variables to predict agricultural plant suitability

Assessment of local spatial climatic variability is important in the planning of planting locations for horticultural crops. This study investigated three regression-based calibration methods (i.e. traditional versus two optimized methods) to relate short-term 12-month data series from 170 temperature loggers and 4 weather station sites with data series from nearby long-term Australian Bureau of Meteorology climate stations. The techniques trialled to interpolate climatic temperature variables, such as frost risk, growing degree days (GDDs) and chill hours, were regression kriging (RK), regression trees (RTs) and random forests (RFs). All three calibration methods produced accurate results, with the RK-based calibration method delivering the most accurate validation measures: coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.92, 0.97 and 0.95 and root-mean-square errors of 1.30, 0.80 and 1.31 °C, for daily minimum, daily maximum and hourly temperatures, respectively. Compared with the traditional method of calibration using direct linear regression between short-term and long-term stations, the RK-based calibration method improved R2 and reduced root-mean-square error (RMSE) by at least 5 % and 0.47 °C for daily minimum temperature, 1 % and 0.23 °C for daily maximum temperature and 3 % and 0.33 °C for hourly temperature. Spatial modelling indicated insignificant differences between the interpolation methods, with the RK technique tending to be the slightly better method due to the high degree of spatial autocorrelation between logger sites.

A novel method for predicting gas/oil flow rate from temperature log data

Abstract Gas/oil flow rate of production well is an important parameter for evaluating oilfield production. This study presents an effective inversion method for estimating the flow rate from temperature log data, and the proposed method is based on the temperature-flow rate model of production well. Therefore, a novel heat transfer model for production well with consideration of wellbore heat capacity is built first to obtain the temperature-flow rate model. Then sensitivity analysis is applied to investigation of the correlation between the flow rate and fluid temperature for the inversion method. Lastly, the inversion method is used to estimate the flow rate as well as thermal conductivity of three production wells with study on the difference between the entire-wellbore and single-point inversion method. Analyses of results show that the entire-wellbore method tends to be more accurate to estimate flow rate with relative error less than 10%, while the single-point method shows lower error at the middle-points of wellbore for flow rate estimation. Furthermore, the estimated fluid temperature also agrees well with the temperature log data.

Variations in water temperature and implications for trout populations in the Upper Schoharie Creek and West Kill, New York, USA

Water temperature is a key component of aquatic ecosystems because it plays a pivotal role in determining the suitability of stream and river habitat to most freshwater fish species. Continuous temperature loggers and airborne thermal infrared (TIR) remote sensing were used to assess temporal and spatial temperature patterns on the Upper Schoharie Creek and West Kill in the Catskill Mountains, New York, USA. Specific objectives were to characterize (1) contemporary thermal conditions, (2) temporal and spatial variations in stressful water temperatures, and (3) the availability of thermal refuges. In-stream loggers collected data from October 2010 to October 2012 and showed summer water temperatures exceeded the 1-day and 7-day thermal tolerance limits for trout survival at five of the seven study sites during both summers. Results of the 7 August 2012 TIR indicated there was little thermal refuge at the time of the flight. About 690,170 m2 of water surface area were mapped on the Upper Schoharie, yet only 0.009% (59 m2) was more than 1.0 °C below the median water surface temperature (BMT) at the thalweg and no areas were more than 2.0 °C BMT. On the West Kill, 79,098 m2 were mapped and 0.085% (67 m2) and 0.018% (14 m2) were BMT by 1 and 2 °C, respectively. These results indicate that summer temperatures in the majority of the study area are stressful for trout and may adversely affect growth and survival. Validation studies are needed to confirm the expectation that resident trout are in poor condition or absent from the downstream portion of the study area during warm-water periods.

Are viviparous lizards from cool climates ever exclusively nocturnal? Evidence for extensive basking in a New Zealand gecko

Viviparity has evolved numerous times among squamate reptiles; however, the combination of viviparity and nocturnality is apparently rare among lizards. We used time-lapse photography to examine evidence for diurnal activity in a viviparous lizard often described as nocturnal, the gecko Woodworthia ‘Otago/Southland’ from southern New Zealand (family Diplodactylidae). Evidence for diurnal emergence was extensive. Females have a higher incidence of basking compared to males, although no difference was detected between females in different reproductive conditions. Temperature loggers inserted into calibrated copper models were used to compare the body temperatures available to geckos in two basking positions and in two retreat types. Models in basking positions reached higher mean temperatures than models in retreats, although there was no significant effect of basking position or retreat type on model temperatures. Collectively, our results indicate that pregnant geckos that bask consistently could reduce gestation length by at least 14 days compared with females that remain in retreats. Extensive basking in this species adds to the growing evidence of diurno-nocturnality in many New Zealand lepidosaurs, including other viviparous geckos. Our results lead us to question whether viviparity in lizards is ever compatible with ‘pure’ nocturnality in a cool climate. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, ●●, ●●–●●.

Use of temperature logs in coal seam gas reservoirs: Application to the Sydney Basin, Australia

This study examines the relationship between borehole temperature logs and gas distribution in coal seams, both spatially and with depth. Temperature logs are often utilized in hydrogeology to monitor groundwater flow which can introduce methanogenic consortia into coal seams, resulting in the generation and accumulation of coal seam gases. Areas of hydraulic connectivity, characterized by open cleats and fractures, provide a pathway for the meteoric influx, whereas tight, mineralized sections of strata prohibit vertical flow and have the potential to trap coal seam gases, or to limit the influx of methanogens and the generation of secondary, biogenic methane. The combination of these concepts raises the possibility of utilizing temperature logs for mapping coal seam gas distributions and assisting exploration activities. Wireline temperature logs are inexpensive to obtain as part of any exploration, production or monitoring program, but provide information pertaining to flow regimes and in situ geological environments. A case study is presented from the Sydney Basin of Australia to demonstrate the types of analyses and interpretations relating to coal seam gas distribution that may be gleaned from temperature log datasets.

Age and sex differences in hibernation patterns in free-living Anatolian ground squirrels

Anatolian ground squirrels, Spermophilus xanthoprymnus (Bennett, 1835), are nearly endemic to Turkey. Various aspects of the biology of Anatolian ground squirrels have been studied. However, a detailed description of hibernation, with special attention to age and sex differences, has not previously been reported. Thus, in this study, we aimed to present a detailed description of hibernation in a population of free-living Anatolian ground squirrels, with special attention to age and sex differences, in relation to soil temperature (Tsoil) at the expected depth of the hibernacula. This study is the first such study for Old World ground squirrels (the genus Spermophilus sensu stricto) and incorporates an additional species from a different environment (e.g. warmer than those of others) into comparative studies of hibernation patterns in Holarctic ground squirrels (the tribe Marmotini) under natural conditions. Body temperature (Tb) was continuously recorded from late summer to spring by intraperitoneally implanted temperature loggers and Tsoil by a temperature logger at a depth of 1m in the field. Anatolian ground squirrels spent about half of the year in hibernation. However, differences in timing of the beginning and end of hibernation resulted in differences in the duration of hibernation among age-sex classes. The duration of torpor bouts was short at the beginning of hibernation, increased as Tsoil decreased, reached its maximum toward the end of hibernation, and decreased thereafter. Adult males exhibited hibernation characteristics rather different from those of other age-sex classes, spending less time in hibernation, exhibiting shorter torpor bouts and longer interbout arousals, especially toward the end of hibernation, and spending proportionally less time in torpor. In conclusion, we observed that hibernation patterns in free-living Anatolian ground squirrels were influenced by age-sex classes, as well as environmental conditions.

Hibernation of three species of the sciuridae family in Yakutia with a body temperature below zero

Materials are presented on the hibernation of three species of squirrel with a body temperature below zero at relatively low temperatures of the environment (down to −10 to −12°C). DS-1922 L temperature loggers were implanted in the body cavity of parka squirrels, long-tailed ground squirrels, and black-capped marmots before the period of hibernation, in August. After the implantation, the temperature loggers were kept in the body cavity of the animals during their winter hibernation and removed at the end of April. During the period of hypothermia, a body temperature below zero was recorded: in parka squirrels it was observed during 5 months, the minimum temperature was −2°C; in long-tailed ground squirrels it was observed during 6 months and the minimum temperature was −2°C; and in black-capped marmots it was observed during 4 months and the minimum temperature was −1°C.

Biparental nest-attendance in Chilean Swallows (Tachycineta meyeni) breeding in Ushuaia, Argentina

Intermittent female incubation, where eggs are left unattended periodically while the female forages, is common among passerines. In extremely cold environments, unattended eggs may be at risk of freezing or exposed to suboptimal developmental temperatures. Our aim was to examine incubation behaviour of Chilean Swallows nesting in a cold environment (daily average temperatures ~10°C) at the southern tip of Argentina, and the temperature regime of incubation. Females had bare, vascularised brood-patches, whereas males had false brood-patches, where feathering of the abdomen was somewhat sparse. Video-cameras were used at three nests, and at all three two adults were observed to attend eggs, day and night, confirming incubation by males. Temperature records of eggs showed that one adult (assumed to be the female) had high rates of attendance and maintained egg temperatures that approached 38–39°C when incubating, and the other adult (assumed male) had lower and variable rates of attendance and maintained egg temperatures generally above 34°C when incubating. The assumed female rarely left the eggs unless the assumed male was there to replace her. Researchers should be cautious when making conclusions using data from temperature loggers in situations where male attendance at nests during incubation is possible.

Application of Intelligent-Well Technology to an SAGD Producer: Firebag Field Trial

This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper SPE 170153, “Application of Intelligent-Well Technology to an SAGD Producer: Firebag Field Trial,” by Richard M. Stahl and Jennifer D. Smith, Suncor Energy; Scott Hobbs, Halliburton; and Colin M. Clarke, Baker Hughes, prepared for the 2014 SPE Heavy Oil Conference—Canada, Calgary, 10–12 June. The paper has not been peer reviewed. An even temperature conformance along the length of the horizontal well is key in maximizing steam-assisted- gravity-drainage (SAGD) production rates. When temperature logs are run in SAGD producers, temperature variations of greater than 50°C between the hottest and coldest spots are commonly observed. The authors theorize that this temperature distribution is related to an inflow distribution and that production rates could be improved if this temperature variance was narrowed. Introduction The Firebag project in northeastern Alberta uses SAGD to recover bitumen from the McMurray formation. SAGD uses stacked horizontal-well pairs, with the top well (injector) located 4 to 6 m above the bottom well (producer). Steam is injected into the top well, warming the bitumen and decreasing its viscosity to a point at which it will flow by gravity to the bottom well. The bottom well typically uses artificial lift to draw fluid into the wellbore and push it up to the surface facilities. Firebag production wells are designed to promote even temperature conformance to maximize bitumen-production rates. The standard Firebag mechanical-lift design is shown in Fig. 1. Temperature conformance is measured by fiber-optic temperature logging while the production well is shut down for an electrical-submersible-pump (ESP) change. A temperature survey was performed on a typical well, indicating that the coolest temperature (150°C) is located near the heel of the well (approximately 700 m) with a maximum value of 210°C near the midpoint of the well (approximately 1050 m). Field history at Firebag suggests that well conformance and bitumen-production rates could be improved through well design.

The course of rectal and vaginal temperature in early postpartum sows

Objectives: To investigate the course of body temperature in early postpartum sows and possible factors that may influence it, and to examine the influence of a vaginal temperature logger on body temperature by including a control group of sows without loggers. Materials and methods: The study was conducted on a commercial pig farm from January to May 2013. A total of 156 sows received a vaginal temperature logger for 6 days post partum and 43 sows remained without loggers (negative control group). Vaginal temperature was measured at 10-minute intervals. Rectal temperature, feed intake, general condition, and vaginal discharge were evaluated daily. Results: The sows showed a clear circadian rhythm of vaginal temperature, with minimal mean temperature 39.0°C (standard deviation [SD] 0.5°C) from 5:00 am to 6:00 am and maximum mean temperature 39.4°C (SD 0.5°C) from 1:00 pm to 7:00 pm (P < .05). Day post partum (P < .01), time of day (P < .01), age (P < .01), general condition (P < .01), vaginal discharge (P < .01), and treatment for postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (P < .01) had effects on rectal and vaginal temperature. Implications: Measurement of body temperature should be made at the same time every day. Use of vaginal temperature loggers is a practicable method for on-farm studies to gain more information about the course of body temperature in postpartum sows. Body temperature should not be used as the single criterion for the decision to administer medical treatment.

In this issue ofWeather

This month's issue of Weather will be of particular interest to all those interested in measurement – not only of weather, but of rivers too. In Birmingham, Simon Bell, Dan Cornford and Lucy Bastin have been looking at the accuracy and precision of automatic weather stations. Their article ‘How good are citizen weather stations? Addressing a biased opinion’ on p. 75 compares temperature data from a Meteorological Monitoring System (Met Office) station with those from a range of relatively inexpensive sensors, often used by the public. In some cases, especially where the sensor has been left in direct sunshine, errors can be large, resulting in biases. Now that citizen data are being used by researchers and the Met Office, knowledge of these biases will be important. Many interesting investigations can be carried out by schools and researchers – not least weather differences on the small spatial scale. On p. 85, ‘Simple investigations of local microclimates using an affordable USB temperature logger’ by Geoff Jenkins demonstrates that this has become increasingly easy, using data loggers available for only a few pounds. If well exposed, these loggers can record reasonably accurate data over intervals between a few minutes and several hours. They could prove to be a useful resource to citizen observers, ensuring that data are available even during periods of absence. On p. 92, we turn to the observation of temperature differences in rivers flowing from the Derbyshire Peak. Little data are available to show how these temperatures change, following snowfall, rainfall or drought, but Robert Wilby, Matthew Johnson and Julia Toone help to rectify this in ‘Thermal shockwaves in an upland river’. This high density study covers the reasons for temperature variations in some detail and is a recommended read. Finally, Katy Mulqueen and Dave Schultz turn to the analysis of frontal systems for the North Atlantic and Europe in ‘Non-classical extratropical cyclones on Met Office sea-level pressure charts’ on p. 100. There has been considerable discussion of analysis charts in Weather over the years, reflecting the developments in our understanding. In particular, the authors discuss the reasons for the analysis of more than one front (be it warm or cold) in analysis charts, related to both the relatively simple Norwegian (‘Bergen’) model and the more recent Shapiro-Keyser system. The issue is topped off, on p. 91, by contributors’ photographs of optical phenomena – always a calm and spectacular way to demonstrate the beauty of our science.

Refrigerated fruit storage monitoring combining two different wireless sensing technologies: RFID and WSN.

Every day, millions of tons of temperature-sensitive goods are produced, transported, stored or distributed worldwide, thus making their temperature and humidity control essential. Quality control and monitoring of goods during the cold chain is an increasing concern for producers, suppliers, logistic decision makers and consumers. In this paper we present the results of a combination of RFID and WSN devices in a set of studies performed in three commercial wholesale chambers of 1848 m3 with different set points and products. Up to 90 semi-passive RFID temperature loggers were installed simultaneously together with seven motes, during one week in each chamber. 3D temperature mapping charts were obtained and also the psychrometric data model from ASABE was implemented for the calculation of enthalpy changes and the absolute water content of air. Thus thank to the feedback of data, between RFID and WSN it is possible to estimate energy consumption in the cold room, water loss from the products and detect any condensation over the stored commodities.

Characterisation of hydraulically-active fractures in a fractured granite aquifer

In this study, the practical usefulness and fundamental applicability of a self-potential (SP) method for identifying the hydraulically-active fractures were evaluated by a comparison of SP methods with other geophysical logging methods and hydraulic tests. Potentially permeable fractures intersecting a shallow, 10-m borehole were first identified using conventional geophysical methods such as acoustic borehole televiewer imaging and temperature, electrical conductivity and gamma-gamma logs. These results were then compared to results of analysis using the SP method. Constant pressure injection and recovery tests were conducted for verification of the hydraulic properties of the fractures identified by various logging methods. The acoustic borehole televiewer and gamma-gamma logs detected the openings or weathering zones associated with fractures intersecting the borehole, but they could not prove that groundwater was flowing through the detected fractures. The temperature and fluid-column electrical conductivity logs were unable to detect the fractured zones where groundwater in the borehole flows out to the surrounding rock aquifers. Comparison of results from the different methods tested showed that the most effective correlation between logs and the distribution of hydraulic conductivity was given by the SP signals, and that SP logging can accurately indicate the location of hydraulically-active permeable fractures. Based on these results, the SP method is recommended for determining the location of hydraulically-active fractures rather than other conventional geophysical logs. This self-potential method can be effectively applied in the initial stage of a site investigation to select the optimal site location or to evaluate the hydrogeological properties of fractures in underground exploration studies, such as those related geothermal reservoir evaluation and radioactive waste disposal.

Design and Field Evaluation of Tubing-Deployed Passive Outflow-Control Devices in Steam-Assisted-Gravity-Drainage Injection Wells

Summary The integration of horizontal wells and thermal-oil-recovery methods, such as steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), has enabled the economic exploitation of extraheavy-oil resources, mainly in Canada. The use of passive outflow-control devices (OCDs) in SAGD wells adds steam-injection points along the horizontal wellbore, influencing steam placement and chamber growth, thus potentially reducing the steam/oil ratio, minimizing productivity uncertainty, and accelerating production. To design OCD installations in SAGD, we need to address two main aspects. The first is the interface between horizontal-wellbore hydraulics and reservoir injectivity, which allows for the determination of the number and location of steam-injection points for improved performance. The other aspect is the design of the OCD itself, which involves selecting and configuring the device with a hydraulic performance that is fit for purpose. For this study, we will focus specifically on straight-orifice-choke passive OCDs. This paper presents a comprehensive design methodology for tubing-deployed passive OCDs in SAGD. The completion design is carried out with a steady-state model of the injection well from a commercial thermal wellbore simulator. The field-performance evaluation of tubing-deployed passive OCDs is critical for verifying the effectiveness of the design methodology and the hydraulic performance of the devices under real field conditions. The field evaluation is performed by history matching the injection pressure vs. the steam-rate data with a model developed in the thermal wellbore simulator. A dynamic pressure gradient (under flowing conditions) inside the injection string carrying the OCDs is obtained with a temperature log, taken with fiber-optic technology, in which the temperature data are converted to pressure by virtue of the properties of saturated steam. This method for measuring the dynamic pressure gradient during steam injection is novel for the SAGD industry. The hydraulic field performance of the OCDs was matched successfully with the simulated model, which indicates the effectiveness of the design methodology, the field-performance-evaluation techniques, and the OCDs in delivering the desired amount of steam at each location.

New heat flow determination in northern Tarim Craton, northwest China

Tarim Craton is a Precambrian block situated in northwest China, just north of the Tibetan Plateau, where a large sedimentary basin with abundant hydrocarbon potential has developed. Accurate heat flow data for Tarim is vital for understanding the lithospheric evolution and hydrocarbon generation in this area; however, there were unavailable until now, due to a lack of high quality steady-state temperature logging data. Here, we report 10 new heat flow values derived from steady-state temperature logging and measured thermal conductivity data. New heat flow values range from 40.1 to 49.4 mW m−2, with a mean of 43.1 ± 3.0 mW m−2. In addition, radiogenic heat production from the sediments accounts for 20 per cent of the observed surface heat flow, whilst the mantle heat flow is estimated to be as low as 6–15 mW m−2; this indicates a dominant contribution from crustal heat, to the observed heat flow. The average heat flow and crustal temperature in the Tarim Craton are markedly lower than those in the Tibetan Plateau, whilst the calculated rheological strength of the lithosphere, beneath Tarim, is sufficiently large to resist the elevation-induced gravitational potential energy difference between Tarim and Tibet. This inherited thermal and rheological contrast, between the craton and Plateau, can be traced back to before the India–Asia collision; this accounts for the differential active deformation pattern in the Tarim Craton and adjacent areas.

Estimating deep temperatures in the Soultz‐sous‐Forêts geothermal area (France) from magnetotelluric data

ABSTRACTAn indirect electromagnetic geothermometer is used for deep temperature estimations in the Soultz‐sous‐Forêts geothermal area (France) using magnetotelluric sounding data. Validation of temperature assessment carried out by comparison of the forecast temperature profile with temperature log from the deepest borehole has resulted in the relative extrapolation accuracy of less than 2%. It is found that the resistivity’s uncertainty caused by magnetotelluric inversion errors and by possible effects of external factors very weakly affects the resulting temperature, with the latter being influenced mainly by the ratio between the borehole length and the extrapolation depth. The temperature cross‐section constructed up to the depth 5000 m manifests local temperature maxima at large depths beneath the wells GPK2 and RT1/RT3. The analysis of the temperature profile in GPK2 location beneath 5000 m indicates that its behaviour continues to be of the conductive type (as in the depth range of 3700 m–5000 m) up to the depth 6000 m, while manifesting convective type below this depth. Finally, application of the indirect electromagnetic geothermometer for the deep temperature forecasting in the Rittershoffen site enabled us to constrain the location for future drilling.

Effect of phytohormones on biochemical parameters in Indian mustard under abiotic stress conditions

An experiment was carried out to see the interactive effect of hormones and stress treatments {water logging (WL), high temperature(HT) and water logging + high temperature(WL+HT)}on biochemical parameters in Indian mustard [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern and Coss.]. The deleterious effect was pronounced under water logged conditions followed by water logging + high temperature and high temperature. Chlorophyll ‘a’ (8.11 and 8.22), b (1.68 and 1.69) and total chlorophyll (9.79 and 9.88) is significantly higher at higher concentration of hormones (IAA 500 μM and Kinetin 50 μM respectively) in comparison to lower concentration and control of water logged plants. Plants grown under HT and WL+HT stress showed similar results as water logged plants. Though the ameliorative effect on stressed plants observed after application of hormones, the carotenoid content (1.54, 1.26 and 1.57) was lower in WL, HT and WL+HT respectively in kinetin 50 μM sprayed plants. A pronounced increase in total soluble carbohydrates (59.5 and 63.60), in IAA 500 μM and kinetin 50 μM sprayed plants respectively. Free amino acids is maximum (71.91) of kinetin 50 μM sprayed plants and proline content (5.28) observed in kinetin 5 μM treated plants

Quantifying stream thermal regimes at multiple scales: Combining thermal infrared imagery and stationary stream temperature data in a novel modeling framework

Accurately quantifying stream thermal regimes can be challenging because stream temperatures are often spatially and temporally heterogeneous. In this study, we present a novel modeling framework that combines stream temperature data sets that are continuous in either space or time. Specifically, we merged the fine spatial resolution of thermal infrared (TIR) imagery with hourly data from 10 stationary temperature loggers in a 100 km portion of the Big Hole River, MT, USA. This combination allowed us to estimate summer thermal conditions at a relatively fine spatial resolution (every ∼100 m of stream length) over a large extent of stream (∼100 km of stream) during the warmest part of the summer. Rigorous evaluation, including internal validation, external validation with spatially continuous instream temperature measurements collected from a Langrangian frame of reference, and sensitivity analyses, suggests the model was capable of accurately estimating longitudinal patterns in summer stream temperatures for this system (validation RMSEs < 1°C). Results revealed considerable spatial and temporal heterogeneity in summer stream temperatures and highlighted the value of assessing thermal regimes at relatively fine spatial and temporal scales. Preserving spatial and temporal variability and structure in abiotic stream data provides a critical foundation for understanding the dynamic, multiscale habitat needs of mobile stream organisms. Similarly, enhanced understanding of spatial and temporal variation in dynamic water quality attributes, including temporal sequence and spatial arrangement, can guide strategic placement of monitoring equipment that will subsequently capture variation in environmental conditions directly pertinent to research and management objectives.

Conservation of the Hungarian meadow viper Vipera ursinii rakosiensis

In order to stop the decline of Hungarian meadow viper Vipera ursinii rakosiensis, in 2004 MME BirdLife Hungary together with national parks and Budapest Zoo started a complex conservation programme, supported by the European Union LIFE‐Nature fund. The Hungarian Meadow Viper Conservation Centre was established with 16 adult individuals, collected from six different populations. By 2013 the number of vipers bred reached c. 1700 individuals. First reintroductions took place in March 2010, with 30 adult snakes released into a reconstructed habitat in Kiskunság National Park. By 2013, a total of 240 snakes had been released into three locations. Snakes were released by relocating the animals in the artificial burrows they used in the semi‐natural terrariums at the Hungarian Meadow Viper Conservation Centre. At the release sites vipers were recorded 255 times during post‐release monitoring, and 69 individuals were identified. Eighteen of the observed ♀♀ were gravid, and ten juvenile or subadult individuals were documented. In order to develop a remote‐tracking method, pre‐programmed radio‐tags with a detection range of 200–300 m were surgically implanted into the abdomens of 16 vipers. These tags also operated as temperature loggers, recording data every 5 minutes for one year. Zoos play an important role in communicating the results of this captive‐breeding and release programme. Exhibits of live Hungarian meadow vipers are located at Budapest Zoo and Schönbrunn Zoo in Vienna, Austria, and there are information points about the species located in all Hungarian zoos.