Arc Temperature Research Articles

Dynamic behavior of ultrasonic frequency pulsed current-assisted gas metal arc welding

Investigating ultrasonic frequency pulsed current (UFPC)-assisted welding is crucial owing to its significant advantages over traditional welding methods, including enhanced weld quality, reduced defects, and increased efficiency. This study elucidated the generation mechanism of arc ultrasonic waves influenced by UFPC through theoretical derivation. A microscopic model of arc plasma under the influence of UFPC was developed, and the equations governing the thermophysical properties of the plasma were theoretically derived and calculated. A three-dimensional numerical simulation model was developed to analyze the dynamic behavior of arc plasma and molten metal in UFPC-assisted gas metal arc welding (UFPC-GMAW). The simulation results revealed that the incorporation of UFPC increased both the maximum arc temperature and plasma velocity, resulting in a conical shape of the arc. Additionally, the maximum arc temperature amplitude decreased from 13.6% in conventional GMAW (C-GMAW) to 9.6% in UFPC-GMAW, indicating improved arc stability. The increase in electromagnetic force led to a higher droplet transfer frequency. Moreover, the weld pool in UFPC-GMAW exhibited greater weld penetration than in C-GMAW. Notably, the variations in maximum arc temperature and velocity were synchronized with UFPC, resulting in localized thermal contraction and expansion within the arc. These changes affected the arc volume and shape, leading to the excitation of ultrasonic waves. The calculated droplet size and transfer frequency were consistent with the experimental results, confirming the reliability of the models. These simulation results provide valuable guidance for engineers in designing UFPC-GMAW technology to achieve high-quality welds.

Variation of Surface Tension of Liquid Metal with Fluorides in Tungsten Inert Gas Welding

Real-time measuring and obtaining surface tension of liquid metal during the arc welding process is critical for studying the behavior of the weld pool, such as Marangoni flow and flow velocity. The dynamic variation of surface tension of weld pool during tungsten inert gas welding process with and without fluoride flux was measured by weld pool oscillation sensing system, and the effect of fluoride flux on surface tension and pool behavior was analyzed. The results show that the surface tension gradient of liquid metal can convert from a negative to a positive value in a critical arc time. The flow velocity of liquid metal and critical arc time significantly increased and decreased, respectively, with fluoride flux. The variation of surface tension, flow velocity, and critical arc time with fluoride flux was induced by arc temperature increasing.

New constraints to subduction zone arc and backarc mantle temperatures: a test of the corner flow model

The heat source for the hot volcanic arc of subduction zones and the uniformly warm backarc is not well understood, particularly where backarc extension is absent. In the widely studied corner flow model, the traction of the underthrusting plate drags down the overlying viscous mantle, and the induced shallower seaward flow brings in heat from the landward and deeper asthenosphere. However, earlier comparisons with observations, especially backarc heat flow, gave poor agreement. There are several new constraints to the temperatures and structures above the underthrusting plate and in the backarc, especially those in western North America, for comparison with model predictions. Seismic receiver functions map horizontal boundaries, including the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB). Seismic shear wave tomography gives mantle velocity-depth that provides an approximate proxy for temperature. Attenuation of seismic wave speed indicates high temperature or partial melting. The presence of recent backarc volcanics and their geochemistry give the depth and temperature of the LAB. From these constraints in western North America, the LAB reflects ponding of partial melt, is consistently at a depth of 65±3 km and temperature of 1350±25°C, and overlies nearly constant temperature (adiabatic) asthenosphere across the backarc from Mexico to Alaska. These depth and temperature estimates are greatly different from corner flow model predictions. An alternative hypothesis more consistent with these constraints is vigorous small-scale convection in the backarc asthenosphere. Whether or how this convection coexists with the large-scale flow patterns inferred from the interpretation of seismic anisotropy analyses, and to what degree it prevails in the arc-forearc region, deserve further research.

Modeling the coupled bubble-arc-droplet evolution in underwater flux-cored arc welding

For the numerical simulation of underwater wet flux-cored arc welding, the most crucial issue is to investigate the intense interactions between the underwater bubble, arc plasma, and molten metal. However, it is a great challenge to couple them into a single numerical model. In this study, a 3D three-phase flow model is originally established, which successfully couples the dynamic bubble, arc, and droplet. A modified Lee model is employed to realize spontaneous phase transition from liquid water to bubble gas. According to the simulation results, the bubble evolution is divided into four main stages, and two bubble separation modes are recognized. It is found that, both the changing pressure field around the bubble and the varying flow direction of surrounding water contribute to the unique bubble evolution patterns. As for the droplet, its violent up-and-down oscillation at the wire tip is mainly caused by the opposite gas drag forces, which are produced by the turbulent gas flow inside the bubbles. The upward gas drag force can even make the neck of the droplet disappear. With different droplet detaching angles, two predominant droplet transfer modes are numerically produced; when the angle reaches 147°, the droplet is pushed away and becomes a spatter. Furthermore, the underwater arc is found to be subjected to compressions from both the radial direction due to bubble necking and the axial direction due to droplet growth. The arc temperature and velocity vary significantly not only during the whole droplet transfer period, but also within each bubble evolution cycle. To verify the reliability of the model, underwater welding experiments and visual sensing are conducted. The simulated results match well with the experimental ones, with an 8% error in the droplet transfer period and only a 1.4% error in the bubble evolution cycle.

Study of arc and magnetic field parameters under delayed breaking condition of DB-DC VCB

Taking the mechanical double-break DC vacuum circuit breaker (DB DC VCB) as the research object, the magnetic field and temperature field distribution between the breaks and the plasma characteristics under the working condition of gap difference caused by actuator dispersion are investigated to explore the difference in arc characteristics between the two breaks. Based on the system of Maxwell and magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) equations, a non-simultaneous breaking model of the DB DC VCB is established, and parameters such as magnetic flux density, plasma velocity, inter-contact pressure, and ion and electron temperatures are calculated. The simulation results show that the cathode surface field emission effect is stronger in the small gap break (delayed breaking break). Besides, in the small gap break, the arc temperature is higher, the rate of decrease of temperature is lower, the electron velocity is higher, the magnetic flux density is lower, the regulatory ability of the magnetic field is weaker, and the plasma diffusion speed is slower. In the arc ignition stage, the arc aggregation state duration of the small gap break is longer than that of the normal break, which means the arc in the small gap break gets diffused and arc energy dissipation becomes harder. Therefore, the arc energy density of the delayed breaking break is greater, the arc morphology transition time is longer, the residual particle concentration after arc extinguishing is higher, and the probability of re-strike breakdown increases with the increase in gap difference. Improving the synchronization of the actuator could improve the breaking ability of the DB DC VCB. Index terms—plasma arc, double-break direct current vacuum circuit breaker (DB-DC VCB), transverse magnetic field (TMF), magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) model.

Regulating mechanisms of external axial magnetic field on flow and heat transfer behavior for process optimization in plasma beam polishing

Plasma beam polishing has emerged as an innovative alternative to conventional metal finishing techniques. However, the precision machining ability of plasma arc encounters challenges due to the formation of surface undulations, while previous research has predominantly focused on parameter adjustments. In this paper, the feasibility of optimizing the plasma beam polishing process was validated through magnetic field regulation, as the surface topography and subsurface structure were obviously flattened. Given this, a micro plasma arc model under inhomogeneous axial magnetic field was established to explore the regulating mechanisms of the external axial magnetic field on the flow and heat transfer behavior of the plasma arc. Through this model, the plasma characteristics (magnetic induction intensity, electric potential, arc current, Lorentz force, plasma velocity and electron temperature) were comprehensively discussed. The results indicate that the external shape of the plasma arc is determined by the self-induced magnetic field, while the externally applied axial magnetic field significantly influences the internal flow of the plasma arc. The axial and radial magnetic fields generated by the excitation coil can induce circumferential rotation by dragging the plasma arc with Lorentz force, creating a more suitable energy beam for the polishing process. To verify the model, the arc temperature was measured using spectroscopic diagnostics, and the arc shape was captured using a high-speed camera, both of which were basically consistent with the simulation results.

Transient characteristics of ultra-high frequency adjustable multi-pulse gas tungsten welding arc

In response to the shortcomings of traditional Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), such as low penetration, slow welding speed, and low production efficiency, an Ultra-High-Frequency Adjustable Multi-Pulse Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (UFMP-GTAW) process is proposed. This process more effectively concentrates the temperature distribution of the welding arc. To characterize the arc morphology and its dynamic changes, high-speed photography captured ten images of the UFMP-GTAW welding arc within one cycle. The arc image processing algorithm proposed in the paper was used to study the arc's variation characteristics over one cycle. This algorithm includes binarization, arc segmentation, and edge detection to obtain arc morphology parameters. The arc symmetry algorithm is used to symmetrize the arc images for Abel inversion, resulting in the emission coefficient distribution. Further calculations provide the temperature distribution, electrical conductivity distribution, and current density distribution of the arc. Analysis reveals that changes in arc temperature, electrical conductivity, and current density lag behind changes in current. The temperature of the arc spreads from the central axis to the surrounding arc space. When high-frequency current variations occur, the heat input generated by the current increase takes time to transfer to the entire arc space. Conversely, if the current suddenly decreases, the heat input rapidly diminishes. However, because heat transfer takes time, the arc space remains relatively stable for a short period, making the ultra-high-frequency arc form more stable.

Stabilising mechanism of cathode jet and droplet transfer in hybrid-laser–GMAW-based directed energy deposition of titanium alloy

ABSTRACT A hybrid laser–GMAW-based directed energy deposition (DED) was developed to stabilise the cathode jet and droplet transfer in DED of Ti alloy. High-speed photography, spectroscopic diagnostic, theoretical calculation, and numerical simulation were employed to investigate the stabilising mechanisms. At a high laser energy density, the highest temperature of the molten pool was located in the laser-irradiated zone, generating a stable cathode jet. Ti atoms easily ionised into Ti ions at high temperatures (>8200 K); therefore, the cathode jet was primarily composed of Ti ions. The laser-induced metal vapour attracted and contracted the arc, resulting in an increase in the arc temperature, and strong evaporation near the wire during the peak-current stage. Therefore, the distribution areas of Ti I and Ti II were enlarged. Introducing the laser inhibited the obstructive effect of the cathode jet on the droplet, thereby enhancing the stability of droplet transfer.

Experimental and model analysis of the thermoelectric characteristics of serial arc in prismatic lithium‐ion batteries

AbstractAiming at the electrical safety problems of lithium‐ion battery system due to series arc fault, a finite element simulation model of square battery under series arc fault is established based on the magnetohydro‐dynamic equations. The arc voltages at different electrode spacings are analysed, and the electric field distribution, magnetic field distribution, arc temperature and flow velocity around the arc are investigated to determine the maximum values and locations of the electric field strength, magnetic density, arc temperature and flow velocity at the time of the arc fault. Then, on the basis of the series arc experimental platform, determine the value of the arc starting voltage and the critical power supply voltage that produces a stable arc, analyse the evolution of the arc burning time with different loop currents, the evolution of the arc of the separation gap, and then summarise the effect of the disaster on the battery. Finally, the errors of simulation and experimental arc voltage and battery surface temperature are analysed to verify the accuracy of the model.

Interruption characteristic of 3%C5F10O/97%CO2 gas mixture in a 40.5 kV circuit breaker

The C5F10O/CO2 gas mixture is one of the most promising SF6 alternative gases at the present stage, which was initially applied in high-voltage electrical equipment. This paper mainly studies the interruption performance of 3%C5F10O/97%CO2 gas mixture (k = 3%) with a charging pressure of 0.6 MPa in high-voltage circuit breakers. First, the thermodynamic parameters, transport coefficient, and net radiation coefficient were calculated for k = 3%. On this basis, a 40.5 kV circuit breaker was used as a prototype to establish the magnetohydrody-namic model for breaking 20 kA short-circuit current, and the arc temperature and pressure distribution in the arc extinguishing chamber of the circuit breaker were calculated. The LC oscillation circuit was used to build an arc-extinguishing characteristic test platform to verify the accuracy of the numerical calculation. Finally, based on the Mayr arc model and the critical electric field strength, the post-arc thermal breakdown and electrical breakdown characteristics of SF6, CO2, and k = 3% were quantitatively analyzed. The results show that under 0.6 MPa, the thermal breakdown performance of k = 3% is about 89.7% of SF6, which is nearly twice higher than that of CO2 and has better thermal breaking ability. The electrical breakdown performance of k = 3% is about 20.4% of SF6, and the probability of electrical breakdown in the front end of the fixed contact is high. This problem should be paid attention to in the design of high-voltage circuit breakers. This study can provide a reference for the development and optimization of environmentally friendly high-voltage circuit breakers.

Transient Quenching Properties of Vapor Arc Formed in Silica Sand: Contribution of Vaporized SiO2 Mixture to DC Arc Extinction Performance

The current‐limiting fuse uses silica (SiO2)‐sand as arc quenching medium to increase a current‐limiting performance during the DC arc quenching process. In order to increase the current‐limiting performance of the fuse, a detailed understanding of an arc resistance rise process is necessary. This paper first carried out a 1000 A DC Cu arc quenching experiment using the silica‐sand to obtain transient change in , morphology of the arc, and arc temperature during the arc quenching process. As a result, a current decaying increased . The arc was maintained in the cavity surrounded by the fulgurite during the current decaying process. The temperature of Cu/SiO2 arc was 25–8 kK at a current region of 950–400 A during the arc quenching process. Second, we theoretically calculated an electrical resistivity , and a thermal diffusivity as vapor properties for the Cu/SiO2 vapor mixture. As typical results, the admixing of the SiO2 vapor into the Cu arc less increased of the Cu/SiO2 vapor mixture at between 25 and 5 kK. The of the Cu/SiO2 vapor mixture drastically increased due to only decay in . In contrast, the admixing of the SiO2 vapor into the Cu arc significantly increased at between 15 and 8 kK. The present results indicate that an increase in and consequent rise in thermal energy dissipation from the arc is the main role of the silica‐sand vapor mixed with Cu arc in the DC fuse during the arc quenching process. The increased thermal energy dissipation due to the SiO2 vapor admixing further decreases to rapidly rise and during the arc quenching process. © 2024 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan and Wiley Periodicals LLC.

The Effect of Energy Parameters of Power Sources on the Structure and Properties of Permanent Joints at Manual Arc Welding

The study presents the results of the research into the effect of the dynamic properties of inverter and diode power sources of welding arc power supply on the stability of melting and transfer of electrode metal into the weld pool. The principal energy parameters of the power source include the rates of rise and fall of short-circuit current, the ratio of arc burning current to short-circuit current, and other related factors. It has been demonstrated that an increase in the rate of change of these parameters within one welding mode microcycle alters the properties of heat and mass transfer, increases the frequency of electrode metal droplet transfer, reduces the size of transferred droplets in the weld pool and the duration of their stay on the electrode end under the influence of the high temperature of the welding arc, and the duration of short circuits. The increase in the mass fraction of alloying elements at their transition from the coated electrode to the weld metal is demonstrated to depend on the rate of change of the main energy parameters of one welding mode microcycle of the inverter power source in comparison with the diode rectifier. An enhancement in the structural integrity and properties of permanent joints during welding has been observed when using an inverter power source for the welding arc with high dynamic properties.

Optimization of metal transfer in rutile flux-cored arc welding through controlled CO2 concentration in argon–CO2 shielding gas

In this study, we analyzed the impact of carbon dioxide concentration in argon–carbon dioxide shielding gas on droplet transfer characteristics in rutile flux-cored arc welding, employing titanium oxide as a primary wire flux component. The welding process was carried out at a welding current of 190, 220, 250, 280, and 310 A under an argon–CO2 shielding gas mixture with six levels of CO2 concentration of 0, 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, 20 %, and 25 % for a parametric study. Unlike the conventional solid wire welding trend, where the droplet transfer frequency decreases with the increase in carbon dioxide concentration, an increase in metal transfer frequency was observed with the increase in CO2 concentration from approximately 5 % to 20 %. The concentration reaching the maximum frequency was 20 % at 190 A, which decreased as the welding current increased, reaching 5 % at 310 A. Droplet initiation at the lower sheath end is succeeded by a gradual downward movement along the flux column's side after a few milliseconds. Upon reaching the lower end, the droplet forms a neck and undergoes separation. Thus, the length of the flux column directly impacts the duration of one droplet transfer cycle. The length was decreased by arc constriction when increasing CO2 concentration appropriately to concentrate beneath the flux column or by increasing the welding current to raise the arc temperature, which contributed to melting and shortening the flux column.

Study on rapid arc quenching in protection gap based on magnetic blowing principle

Abstract Parallel protection gap has the advantages of simple structure, good economy, and so on. It is widely used in lightning protection. However, the problem is that the arc’s self-extinguishing ability of the protection gap is poor and prone to tripping the line, hindering its further development. To address this problem, this paper proposes a method of connecting an electromagnet in series next to a protection gap and installing an arc-breaking grid at the gap. By changing the magnetic field distribution in the protective gap, while the arc is stretched, the arc is deflected to break on the arc-breaking grids, thus causing the arc to extinguish quickly. Through a finite element simulation platform, the arc simulation model of this protective gap was established based on the theory of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) approach. The results of the study show that a fast arc quenching method for parallel protection gaps based on the magnetic blowing principle can extinguish the arc within 5 ms, an 89.4 percent reduction in arc extinguishing time compared to the traditional parallel spark gap. Its arc temperature plummeted to below 2000 K in a short time, which greatly reduces the arc energy and effectively improves the arc extinguishing effect of the protection gap.

Analysis of Breaking Characteristics of C4F7N/CO2 Mixture Gas in Circuit Breaker

In recent years, the C4F7N mixed gas has attracted considerable attention for its outstanding insulation and arc-extinguishing capabilities, positioning it as a potential substitute for sulfur hexafluoride, SF6. However, there remains a limited understanding of the arc-extinguishing and insulation performance of C4F7N/CO2 mixed gas. In addition, there is limited research on high-current breaking in circuit breakers. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the arc characteristics and breaking behavior of 10%C4F7N/90%CO2 and 15%C4F7N/85%CO2 mixed gases using a magnetohydrodynamic model based on the 252kV air pressure circuit breaker. The dynamic characteristics of this mixed gas are compared with pure SF6 under short-circuit current breaking conditions, while analyzing different parameters of the C4F7N configuration. The results indicate that the mixed gas exhibits lower levels in terms of arc temperature, axial diffusion distance and pressure difference at the moment of arc initiation compared to pure SF6. Furthermore, increasing the inflating pressure can effectively enhance the breaking performance of the circuit breaker with 0.6 MPa, making it more suitable. Additionally, increasing the proportion of C4F7N in the mixed gases will cause the arc temperature to rise slightly at the initial arc and current crossing zero, but decrease at the peak current. The core pressure also rises significantly, with a greater pressure difference established in the compressor at moment of arc initiation. This study provides a reference for the design of an environmentally friendly circuit breaker and the selection of the mixed gas ratio.

Exploring Extreme Voltage Events in Hydrogen Arcs within Electric Arc Furnaces

This study highlights the potential utilization of hydrogen gas in electric arc furnaces for achieving cleaner and more sustainable steel production. The application of hydrogen offers a promising path for reducing carbon emissions, enhancing energy efficiency, and advancing the concept of “green steel”. This study employs a 2D axisymmetric induction-based model to simulate an electric arc under atmospheric pressure conditions. We conducted numerical simulations to compare compressible and incompressible models of an electric arc. The impact of compressibility on hydrogen arc characteristics such as arc velocity, temperature distribution, and voltage drop were investigated. Additionally, different applied current arcs were simulated using the compressible model. When compared to an incompressible arc, the compressible arc exhibits a higher voltage drop. This higher voltage drop is associated with lower temperatures and lower arc velocity. A rise in applied current results in an upward trend in the voltage drop and an increase in the arc radius. In addition, the increased applied current increases the probability of voltage fluctuations. The voltage fluctuations tend to become more extreme and exert more stress on the control circuit. This has an impact on emerging electric arc technologies, particularly those involving the use of hydrogen. These fluctuations affect arc stability, heat output, and the overall quality of processes. Thus, the precise prediction of voltage and the ability to stabilize the operation is critical for the successful implementation of new hydrogen technologies.

Measurement of medium-voltage AC air arc temperature and particle number density based on dual-wavelength Moiré deflection technology

AC air arcs are generated in medium-voltage (MV) power systems under the effect of harsh weather conditions, equipment aging, and high penetration of distributed generation, threatening equipment and public safety. The arc current and temperature are low due to the wide application of arc suppression devices. In this scenario, the MV AC air arc does not satisfy the local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) condition. In addition, the repeated arcing and extinguishing processes further complicate the arc discharge mechanism, which bring challenges in the modeling and detection of MV AC air arcs. Experimental methods are a direct and efficient approach to determine the properties of arc plasmas. In this study, a dual-wavelength Moiré deflection diagnostic system was established to determine the time evolution of the particle density and radial distribution of the temperature in an MV AC air arc without relying on the LTE assumption. The electron number density and heavy particle number density change transiently during the arc discharge process and change gradient along the radial direction. The heavy particle temperature and electron temperature were then calculated based on the measured particle number density. During the arcing stage, the temperature of the electrons exceeded that of the heavy particles significantly, and the arc deviated from LTE. Finally, the limitations of the traditional single-wavelength Moiré deflection method are analyzed. The classic single-wavelength Moiré deflection method, while capable of estimating heavy particle temperature in plasma, exhibits a significant error in electron density estimation compared to the dual-wavelength Moiré deflection method.

A novel optimizing Pulsed Plasma Gas Variable Polarity Plasma Arc Welding (PPG-VPPAW) method for improving weld quality

To enhance the reliability of aluminum alloy welding quality, a novel Pulsed Plasma Gas Variable Polarity Plasma Arc Welding (PPG-VPPAW) system is proposed. This system enables independent control and rapid adjustment of the plasma gas, allowing for flexible modulation of arc pressure output under constant thermal conditions, thereby reducing porosity and refining grain structure. The research analyzed the impact of parameters of different plasma gas on arc characteristics, welding porosity, and welding microstructure. The results reveal that the periodic changes in pulsed plasma gas induce corresponding variations in arc temperature, arc shape, arc pressure, arc voltage, and the morphology of the weld pool keyhole. The magnitude of the difference between the base value and peak value of pulsed plasma gas determines the extent of arc pressure fluctuations and the behavior of the backside keyhole. The maximum oscillation amplitude of the backside keyhole can reach up to 4.5 mm². Additionally, the oscillation of pulsed plasma gas within the molten pool has been demonstrated to effectively reduce weld porosity and refine grain size. Under this process, the grain size of the weld metal can be reduced by up to approximately 25%. Current work provides an important direction for fabricating highly reliable aluminum alloy weldments.

Investigating arc and molten metal transport phenomena in gas metal arc welding with Ar–CO2 gas mixtures using a numerical method

This paper presents a numerical investigation of the transient transport phenomena of the arc and molten metal during gas metal arc welding (GMAW) using shielding gas mixtures ranging from 100% Ar + 0% CO2 to 80% Ar + 20% CO2. The thermophysical parameters of the Ar–CO2 mixtures, considering the presence of metal vapor, were calculated as a function for a temperature range of 1000–30 000 K. The influence of metal vapor content and CO2 proportion on the thermophysical properties of the mixed gas was discussed in detail. As the CO2 content increased from 0 to 20%, the shape of the arc changed from a bell to a cone due to the increase in mass density, specific heat, and thermal conductivity. The maximum arc temperature and velocity decreased with increasing CO2 content, resulting in larger droplets and a lower droplet transfer frequency. Although the change in electrical conductivity did not affect the arc shape, it did influence the arc temperature by altering the distribution of current density. Experiments of droplet transfer and arc behavior were carried out, and the results showed that the simulated droplet size, transfer frequency, and arc temperature distribution agreed well with the experimental values. These findings could serve as a theoretical tool for better understanding the underlying physical mechanisms of the GMAW process using different shielding gases, ultimately aiming to achieve high weld quality.

Influence of reduced pressure on arc and weld pool properties in TIG welding

In this article, transient transport phenomena in the arc and weld pool for different ambient pressures during tungsten inert gas welding were reported. Arc plasma and weld pool behaviour vary with ambient pressure because of changes in arc thermophysical properties. The maximum arc temperature decreases with decreasing ambient pressure because of reduced plasma electrical conductivity. Decreased arc mass density results in a lower maximum weld pool surface temperature and a decrease in maximum metal vapour content as ambient pressure decreases. Arc pressure decreases with decrease in ambient pressure, resulting in shallower penetration. Calculated arc temperature distribution and weld cross-section are compared with experiments to validate the modeling method for simulating heat and mass transfer phenomena in low ambient pressure welding.