Temperate South-eastern Australia Research Articles

Seasonal truffle consumption by long-nosed bandicoots (Perameles nasuta) in a mixed rainforest–open forest community in north-eastern New South Wales

Scats of long-nosed bandicoots (Perameles nasuta) from north-eastern New South Wales were examined for seasonal occurrence of fungi. Fungus was detected in bandicoot diets in all seasons, but samples from autumn and winter were more likely to contain fungi, and more taxa were consumed in these seasons, compared with spring and summer. Individual scat samples also contained more spore types in autumn and winter than in spring and summer. My results support other work in temperate south-eastern Australia that indicate an autumn and winter peak in fungal availability, and a stronger focus on fungal consumption by mammals at this time of year.

Headwater peatland channels in south-eastern Australia; the attainment of equilibrium

Many small headwater catchments (<50km2) in temperate south-eastern Australia store sediment in valley fills. While accumulation in some of these systems commenced up to 30,000years ago, most did not commence filling with peat or clastic material until at least the mid Holocene. In such headwater settings, many clastic valley fills develop cut-and-fill channels, which contrast to some peatland settings where sinuous equilibrium channels have evolved. Four peatland systems within this dataset demonstrate stable channel systems which span nearly the full spectrum of observed valley-floor slopes. We assess new and published longitudinal data from these four channels and demonstrate that each of these channels has achieved equilibrium profiles. New and published flow and survey data are synthesised to demonstrate how these peatland systems have attained equilibrium. Low rates of sediment supply and exceptionally high bank strengths have resulted in low width to depth ratios which accommodate rapid changes in flow velocity and depth with changes in discharge. In small peatland channels, planform adjustments have been sufficient to counter the energy provided by these hydraulically efficient cross-sections and have enabled the achievement of regime energy-slopes. In larger and higher energy peatland channels, large, armoured, stable, bedforms have developed. These bedforms integrate with planform adjustments to maintain a condition of minimum variance in energy losses as represented by the slope profiles and, therefore, a uniform increase in downstream entropy.

Is Catchment Imperviousness a Keystone Factor Degrading Urban Waterways? A Case Study from a Partly Urbanised Catchment (Georges River, South-Eastern Australia)

The extent of catchment impervious surface is recognised to be an important factor associated with the condition of urban freshwater streams. We tested the hypothesis that the degree of catchment imperviousness predicted the relative ecological condition of freshwater reaches within the network of streams and rivers in the partly urbanised Georges River catchment in temperate south-eastern Australia. The 2-year study involved two spring and two autumn assessments of water quality (chemical and physical) and ecological condition, using benthic macroinvertebrates, riparian vegetation and calculation of catchment imperviousness. The study revealed that highly urbanised streams had strongly degraded water quality and macroinvertebrate communities, compared to clean non-urban reference streams. We found three clear groups of sites with varying degrees of ecological condition, being categorised according to the level of catchment effective imperviousness (low 18.0 %). Water pollution also varied according to these categories. A combination of two water chemistry attributes (total nitrogen and calcium), along with catchment imperviousness and riparian vegetation condition, were identified as being the factors most strongly associated with variation of macroinvertebrate communities. Based on our results, we recommend that protection of the ecological condition of streams should focus on not only water quality but also include catchment imperviousness and riparian vegetation condition.

Landowners and conservation markets: Social benefits from two Australian government programs

Market-based approaches to conservation provide two novel policy outcomes. First, they secure public environmental benefits through incentive payments to private landowners to deliver those conservation outcomes that are unlikely to be achieved through regulation. Second, they provide opportunities to influence perceptions, motivations and values, and shift behaviors among landowners towards biodiversity conservation.Here we report on our experiences in engaging private landowners through two large market-based conservation programs funded by the Australian government. The Forest Conservation Fund was run in Tasmania from 2006 to 2009 and protected over 28,000ha of high conservation value forests through contracts with over 125 landowners. The Environmental Stewardship Program was run in temperate south eastern Australia from 2008, targets nationally endangered ecological communities and has so far secured over 45,000ha through contracts with over 260 landowners to improve habitat condition. In total these two programs have, at various stages in their implementation, engaged with over 1400 landowners.Participating landowners benefited from their engagement in three major ways. Firstly, landowner appreciation that their land had both production and commercial conservation values grew, as did their interest in better understanding these values and their measurement. Secondly, was the flow of information to build capacity through improved awareness, knowledge transfers and skills development. Effective landholder engagement was strengthened by targeted communications and information support. Landowners received detailed information on the ecology of their properties, and workshops and on-site field surveys provided practical exposure that filled a conservation information and extension void. Some landowners who had been unsuccessful in bidding for funding said they would change aspects of their land management because of what they learned. Thirdly was a group of benefits associated with property planning and management. The competitive and commercial nature of these two programs prompted many landholders to think more about the mix of revenue and cost drivers for their enterprise, and in particular those associated with new conservation market opportunities. Participation encouraged many landholders to redesign their properties into production and conservation zones that supported improved management for both productive and conservation outcomes.These observations suggest that participation in market-based conservation programs encourage social learning and build social capital in ways that can facilitate additional positive biodiversity outcomes on private land. The effectiveness of biodiversity conservation policies and programs would be strengthened by the inclusion of specific social outcomes.

Disarticulation sequences and scattering patterns in temperate southeastern Australia

The effects of scavenging vertebrates and invertebrates on the processes of carcase disarticulation and skeletal scattering have been limited methodologically. This pilot study used controlled animal model research over three months during late autumn/early winter in temperate southeastern Australia to generate disarticulation sequences and skeletal scattering patterns. Four Sus scrofa (White hybrid) placed on the natural ground surface outdoors were subjected to two treatments, caged for two weeks and uncaged for the experimental phase, and observed as they decomposed, disarticulated and scattered. There was a similar disarticulation sequence among the four carcases, regardless of treatments. Ribs, cervical and thoracic vertebrae and the cranium disarticulated early in the sequence, while the forelimbs, hind-limbs, rump and lumbar vertebrae disarticulated later. The scattered skeletal material consisted mostly of back/chest elements. It is concluded that the differing disarticulation sequences between this study and published accounts is related to the effects of the invertebrates both on the scavenging behaviour of vertebrates and the process of disarticulation. The implications for forensic investigations involving scavenged remains include the ability to improve search and relocation methods, time-since-death estimation and a greater understanding of the processes occurring after death.

Revision of the Spyridium bifidum – S. halmaturinum complex (Rhamnaceae: Pomaderreae) from South Australia and Victoria

Vol 30(1) 2012 Introduction Spyridium Fenzl. is one of the larger genera of Rhamnaceae in Australia. Comprising about 45 species, it is the third largest genus of the Pomaderreae, a tribe endemic to Australia and New Zealand (Kellermann et al. 2005; Kellermann & Udovicic 2008). The genus occurs in temperate and semi-arid south-western and south-eastern Australia. Its main centre of distribution is in South Australia (currently 20 species), with a secondary centre in Western Australia (15 species). Only two species are shared between western and south-eastern Australia. There are eight species of Spyridium in Victoria, half shared with South Australia, six species in New South Wales, one extending into south-eastern Queensland, and eight species in Tasmania (see Lepschi et al. 2011). The last treatment of Spyridium for South Australia (Canning 1986) recognised 14 species and six infraspecific taxa. Apart from the addition of S. nitidum Wakef. and S. tridentatum (Steud.) Benth., Canning’s (1986) treatment repeated that by Black (1926, 1952) with a few minor amendments. Since 1986 there have been several changes: Spyridium tridentatum has been transferred back into the re-established genus Stenanthemum Reissek (Rye 1995a; Barker 2005; Thiele 2007) as St. tridentatum (Steud.) Reissek; Spyridium tricolor W.R.Barker & Rye and S. erymnocladum W.R.Barker have been newly described (Barker & Rye 1993, Barker 1995), and S. waterhousei F.Muell., which had been long subsumed under Cryptandra Sm., has been re-instated (Kellermann 2007b). The last Spyridium treatment for Victoria (Walsh 1999) included seven species, one of which was not published at the time: Spyridium sp. 1. Two species endemic to the Grampians were later transferred from Trymalium to Spyridium (Kellermann 2006b): S. daltonii (F.Muell.) Kellermann and S. ×ramosissimum (Audas) Kellermann. Abstract

Landscape and local influences on patterns of reptile occurrence in grazed temperate woodlands of southern Australia

The woodlands of temperate south-eastern Australia are characterised by extensive historical clearing and ongoing modification of the understorey habitat through livestock grazing, fertilization and cropping. The reptile assemblage of these temperate woodlands, while relatively speciose, is believed to be in decline. We report on the abundance and diversity of terrestrial reptiles in native pastures in south-eastern Australia in relation to landscape and local factors; in particular, latitude and grazing management and tree retention. Reptiles were sampled on 24 paired farms spread widely over the south-western slopes of south-eastern Australia. Each pair comprised one farm under rotational grazing and a neighbouring farm with continuous grazing. Twenty-one species were detected, dominated numerically by several skinks and a pygopodid, with clear disparities in the biogeographic distribution of reptiles and also variation owing to survey technique, location, grazing regime, and the presence of trees. Multivariate models showed that the distribution of reptiles is influenced by factors operating at several levels and, to a lesser extent, by farm management. Reptile occurrence was regularly explained by correlations with site-level structural heterogeneity (e.g. native plant richness, number of large trees and log cover) as well as showing strong underlying latitudinal variation. The presence of woodland is critical to reptile occurrence in grazed (and fragmented) landscapes. If the reptile assemblage of this agroecosystem is to benefit from altered farm management, then different management and policy responses may be required, depending on the levels of habitat structural complexity and agricultural intensification that already exist.

Gall inducers take a leap: host-range differences explain speciation opportunity (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)

Phytophagous insects that specialise on broadly distributed plant groups are exposed to host-species diversity gradients. The gall-inducing thrips genus Kladothrips (Froggatt) that specialise on Australian Acacia Mill. (Mimosoideae: Leguminosae, subgenus Phyllodineae DC.) is expected to exhibit variation in host range that is dependent on host ecology. Host Acacia species distributions show structuring between the arid Eremean and non-arid biomes of the monsoonal tropics and temperate south-western and south-eastern Australia. We investigate two aspects of host use in: (1) the Kladothrips rugosus species complex that specialises on hosts whose distributions overlap among sibling lineages on different Acacia species; and (2) Kladothrips nicolsoni that specialises on a species that is relatively isolated from hosts of sibling lineages. First, several approaches that use DNA sequence data are combined to infer putative species among K. rugosus lineages collected from multiple Acacia species using: phylogenetic inference; statistical parsimony; amova; maximum likelihood genetic distance relationships; and generalised mixed Yule coalescent likelihood test of lineage delimitation. Second, haplotype network analysis is used to estimate population structuring of K. nicolsoni that specialises on a geographically isolated Acacia host species. Analyses indicated below species-level relationships among lineages that each induces galls on different Acacia host species. In contrast, haplotype network analysis for a gall-thrips species that is largely allopatric with hosts of sibling species indicates isolation by distance and range expansion effects. Greater host-species richness enhances gall-thrips opportunity to host shift resulting in founder effects that lead to disruptive selection. Restricted gene flow among gall-thrips populations specialising on a relatively isolated host species implies genetic drift via allopatric mechanisms. The results suggest gall-thrips speciation is driven by the combined influence of ecologically based selection with genetic drift that is largely determined by variation in host-species richness between arid and non-arid Australia.

The balance between facilitation and competition in mixtures of Eucalyptus and Acacia changes as stands develop

The balance between facilitation and competition is likely to change with age due to the dynamic nature of nutrient, water and carbon cycles, and light availability during stand development. These processes have received attention in harsh, arid, semiarid and alpine ecosystems but are rarely examined in more productive communities, in mixed-species forest ecosystems or in long-term experiments spanning more than a decade. The aim of this study was to examine how inter- and intraspecific interactions between Eucalyptus globulus Labill. mixed with Acacia mearnsii de Wildeman trees changed with age and productivity in a field experiment in temperate south-eastern Australia. Spatially explicit neighbourhood indices were calculated to quantify tree interactions and used to develop growth models to examine how the tree interactions changed with time and stand productivity. Interspecific influences were usually less negative than intraspecific influences, and their difference increased with time for E. globulus and decreased with time for A. mearnsii. As a result, the growth advantages of being in a mixture increased with time for E. globulus and decreased with time for A. mearnsii. The growth advantage of being in a mixture also decreased for E. globulus with increasing stand productivity, showing that spatial as well as temporal dynamics in resource availability influenced the magnitude and direction of plant interactions.

Holocene hydrologic variability in temperate southeastern Australia: An example from Lake George, New South Wales

Lake George is one of the largest freshwater lakes in Australia when full, and provides one of the most complete records of Quaternary sedimentation in the southeastern part of the continent. The lake is currently ephemeral, but sediments within the basin preserve evidence of multiple permanent and dry lake conditions in the past. We present an optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) chronology of recent lake shoreline sediments in order to reconstruct Holocene hydrologic variability at Lake George, providing past climatic context for the presently ephemeral lake conditions. The OSL chronology indicates three distinct periods of permanent lake conditions up to 15—18 m depth over the Holocene period, at approximately 10—8, 6—2.4 and 0.7—0.3 ka, with lower lake levels occurring in between those events. There appears to be a trend towards lake regression over this period despite relatively recent high lake levels. The chronology is broadly synchronous with comparable records of Holocene climatic variability across southeastern Australia. We also investigate the intrinsic luminescence characteristics of different sediment types as diagnostic tools, but these appear not to be appropriate in this context or form.

Impact of urban development on aquatic macroinvertebrates in south eastern Australia: degradation of in-stream habitats and comparison with non-urban streams

Internationally, waterways within urban areas are subject to broad-scale environmental impairment from urban land uses. In this study, we used in-stream macroinvertebrates as surrogates to measure the aquatic health of urban streams in the established suburbs of northern Sydney, in temperate south eastern Australia. We compared these with samples collected from streams flowing in adjacent naturally vegetated catchments. Macroinvertebrates were collected over a 30-month period from riffle, edge and pool rock habitats and were identified to the family level. Macroinvertebrate assemblages were assessed against the influence of imperviousness and other catchment and water quality variables. The study revealed that urban streams were significantly impaired compared with those that flowed through naturally vegetated non-urban catchments. Urban streams had consistently lower family richness, and sensitive guilds were rare or missing. We found that variation in community assemblages among the in-stream habitats (pool edges, riffles and pool rocks) were more pronounced within streams in naturally vegetated catchments than in urban waterways.

Differing effects of catchment land use on water chemistry explain contrasting behaviour of a diatom index in tropical northern and temperate southern Australia

The DSIAR biotic index for freshwater diatoms, regarded as a potential indicator of impact from agricultural and urban land use on rivers in temperate south-eastern Australia, did not correlate significantly with an index of catchment condition in a tropical region of northern Australia. However, the relationships between the index and water chemistry, especially pH, salinity and concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus, were consistent in both regions. The variable relationship between the index and catchment conditions can be explained by differing effects of catchment land use on stream-water chemistry in northern and southern Australia. In the south, land use has commonly resulted in increases in stream pH, salinity and nutrients, whereas in the north its impact on pH and salinity appears weak. These findings emphasise the need to interpret biological and ecological indices in the context of the varying causal pathways by which human activities affect stream ecosystems in different circumstances.

Soil seed banks of degraded riparian zones in southeastern Australia and their potential contribution to the restoration of understorey vegetation

AbstractAlthough soil seed banks are understood to be integral to the vegetation dynamics and restoration of many ecosystems, little is known of their role in riparian zones. In this study, we investigated soil seed banks of riparian zones of contrasting condition in an agricultural landscape and evaluated their potential to influence riparian restoration. We examined the composition and structure of germinable soil seed banks along lateral gradients from stream channels in both cleared and wooded riparian zones of three lowland creeks within the Goulburn Broken catchment in temperate southeastern Australia. Environmental correlates of soil seed bank characteristics and similarity to extant vegetation were also examined. We found an abundant and species‐rich soil seed bank mostly comprising propagules of perennial rushes and sedges and annual and perennial grasses with many species of annual forbs. While the majority of identifiable germinants and species were native, exotic species were common at all locations. Soil seed bank composition was relatively homogeneous among streams and along lateral gradients from the channel. Riparian condition (i.e. cleared or wooded), however, had a strong influence on soil seed bank composition and structure with cleared reaches containing more species, more germinable annual grasses and higher total numbers of germinable seeds. Soil seed bank composition was correlated with site openness suggesting that extant vegetation structure plays an important role in soil seed bank dynamics. Recruitment from the in situ soil seed bank will help restore only some components of the riparian plant community and may hinder restoration by introducing undesirable species. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Differences in feeding ecology among three co-occurring species of wrasse (Teleostei: Labridae) on rocky reefs of temperate Australia

The foraging behaviours and dietary compositions of three co-occurring labrids (Ophthalmolepis lineolatus, Notolabrus gymnogenis and Pictilabrus laticlavius), which are conspicuous on rocky reefs in temperate south-eastern Australia, were investigated between 2003 and 2005. SCUBA observations at two locations showed that the feeding intensity, and hence the associated effects of these fishes on rocky reef invertebrate prey, was temporally consistent. Relative differences in the contributions of ingested prey and use of different feeding microhabitats demonstrated that the feeding ecology differed significantly among the three species. Thus, O. lineolatus fed on proportionately higher volumes of polychaetes, polyplacophorans, marginellid gastropods (especially Austroginella sp.), bivalves and echinoids, which were sighted opportunistically in a wide selection of microhabitats, but particularly in sand/rubble. Ambush hunting was used regularly by smaller N. gymnogenis and all sizes of P. laticlavius to forage on amphipods, small decapods and small gastropods at algal bases or fronds and Diopatra dentata tubes. Amphipods were similarly important in the diet of smaller O. lineolatus. Larger N. gymnogenis foraged opportunistically over an increased reef area and made greater use of microhabitats that offered minimal prey refuge (e.g. sand/rubble, bare rock/steel) from which common prey, in particular decapods, were obtained. The significant intra- and inter-specific differences in dietary compositions, allied with differences in the use of feeding microhabitats, would facilitate co-occurrence of these three conspicuous species and contribute to maintaining high richness of labrid species in reef systems. Echinoids were regularly consumed by each species but they made a moderate contribution to the diet of only O. lineolatus, which suggests that only one of the three labrids is likely to play a significant role in regulation of echinoid densities in these rocky reef habitats. However, the broad diets and diverse forging strategies employed by these labrid species imply that they have a system-wide influence on invertebrate prey on rocky reefs.

Risk factors for Mycobacterium ulcerans infection, southeastern Australia.

Buruli/Bairnsdale ulcer (BU) is a severe skin and soft tissue disease caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans. To better understand how BU is acquired, we conducted a case-control study during a sustained outbreak in temperate southeastern Australia. We recruited 49 adult patients with BU and 609 control participants from a newly recognized BU-endemic area in southeastern Australia. Participants were asked about their lifestyle and insect exposure. Odds ratios were calculated by using logistic regression and were adjusted for age and location of residence. Odds of having BU were at least halved for those who frequently used insect repellent, wore long trousers outdoors, and immediately washed minor skin wounds; odds were at least doubled for those who received mosquito bites on the lower legs or lower arms. This study provides new circumstantial evidence that implicates mosquitoes in the transmission of M. ulcerans in southeastern Australia.

From Marinum to Ulcerans: a Mycobacterial Human Pathogen Emerges

Have you heard of Buruli ulcer? Probably not, unless you come from equatorial Africa, Papua New Guinea, the Daintree region in tropical Northern Australia, or seaside towns in temperate South Eastern Australia. Other than sporadic cases among visitors to these endemic zones, Buruli ulcer does not occur in North American or European countries. However, the surge and severity of this disease in Africa led the 57th General Assembly of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2004 to recognize Buruli ulcer as a global threat to public health. WHO officials called for ‘research to develop tools to diagnose, treat and prevent the disease, as well as to integrate Buruliulcer into the national disease surveillance system’ (http://www.who.int/topics/mycobacterium_ulcerans/en/). Growing numbers of researchers and clinicians are committed to controlling the spread of Buruli ulcer disease. Under the leadership of Kingsley Asiedu at WHO in Geneva, the Global Buruli Ulcer Initiative continues to expand. WHO now hosts an annual meeting, inviting those involved in Buruli ulcer treatment, research, and disease control, and their combined effort is lifting the veil on this mysterious disease.

Occurrence of tropical fishes in temperate southeastern Australia: Role of the East Australian Current

Dispersal of larval propagules is the major mechanism facilitating connectivity of marine populations. However, only a fraction of larvae settle in suitable habitat. For coral reef fishes, many larvae are advected away from coral reefs, often despite strong behavioural mechanisms (including swimming), and some may travel long distances away from the tropics. Here we document the occurrence of tropical reef fishes along the southeast coast of Australia between 2003 and 2005 and evaluate the role of the East Australian Current (EAC) in driving this pattern. In total we observed 47 species of tropical fishes from 11 families during the summer recruitment season (January to May) at locations spanning most of the length of the New South Wales coast (28° S–37.5° S latitude, ∼1700 km from the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef). Southern locations tended to have reduced richness and density relative to northern ones. In general, the southward extent of distribution of the most commonly observed species was well explained by their planktonic larval durations. Recruitment events tended to be much more episodic in Merimbula (37° S) than Sydney (34° S), but there was little evidence for interannual similarity in the spatial patterns of recruitment of individual species with exception of the numerical dominance of Abudefduf vaigiensis and Abudefduf sexfasciatus (Pomacentridae) at the Sydney location and of Chaetodon auriga and Chaetodon flavirostris (Chaetodontidae) at the Merimbula location. Despite strong evidence for the role of the EAC in the transport of these species at a coastal scale, we found little evidence that individual recruitment events were correlated with local increases in water temperature that would be associated with EAC ingress.

Differences between native and invasive Caulerpa taxifolia: a link between asexual fragmentation and abundance in invasive populations

The tropical and subtropical marine green alga Caulerpa taxifolia has invaded several temperate regions throughout the world, including southeastern Australia. In this study, I examined how invasive C. taxifolia from temperate southeastern Australia differed from native C. taxifolia from subtropical Moreton Bay, Australia, in the traits proposed as being important to its invasion success: thallus size and density, levels of asexual reproduction (fragmentation) and total biomass. Against the prediction of a large size for invasive C. taxifolia, native populations from Moreton Bay had larger stolons and fronds than invasive populations. However, invasive populations consistently had much higher densities of stolons, fronds and fragmented fronds; and a greater biomass compared to native populations. Average densities at invasive sites exceeded 4,700 stolons and 9,000 fronds/m2 and were as high as 27,000 stolons and 95,000 fronds/m2, whichare the highest reported for C. taxifolia anywhere. Average densities of fragmented fronds at invasive sites were as high as 6,000/m2 and up to 45% of all stolons at invasive sites could be directly linked to asexual recruitment via fragmented fronds. Importantly, at invasive locations there was a strong association between asexual reproduction and abundance demonstrated by positive correlations between the density of fragmented fronds and total biomass. These findings are the first to describe quantitative differences between native and invasive C. taxifolia and to demonstrate a link between the high levels of asexual reproduction and high abundance in invasive populations. Although the causes and consequences of high levels of asexual reproduction remain to be explored, this study suggests that changes in demographic and life-history traits during the invasion by C. taxifolia into temperate habitats may contribute to its success there.

The taxonomy, ecology and conservation status of the Golden-rayed Blue: a threatened butterfly endemic to western Victoria, Australia

The Golden-rayed Blue, Candalides noelkeri sp. nov. (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), from the Wimmera of western Victoria, Australia, is described and illustrated. The male and female genitalia and immature stages are figured, described and compared with those of Candalides heathi and C. xanthospilos. Candalides noelkeri sp. nov. is placed in the C. xanthospilos species-group, being most closely allied to and allopatric with C. heathi. It is predominantly univoltine, with adults usually present from late November to early February. However, it has a facultative pupal diapause that gives rise to a partial overlapping second generation in mid-summer. The species is ecologically specialized, monophagous and has a narrow geographical range, currently known only from two localities in a restricted area near Natimuk. Within this limited area it is restricted to flood plains bordering natural salt-lakes where the larval food plant, a prostrate form of Myoporum parvifolium (Myoporaceae), grows as a low spreading ground cover plant. Morphological and geological evidence suggest a recent (late Pleistocene) allopatric speciation event between C. noelkeri sp. nov. and C. heathi. The small, peripheral spatial distribution of C. noelkeri sp. nov. implies that differentiation has been achieved by the founder effect, either through peripheral isolates speciation (peripatric speciation) or postspeciation dispersal, possibly as a result of a barrier created by the volcanic plains in western Victoria. Available information indicates that C. noelkeri sp. nov., Victoria's only endemic species of butterfly, is facing a high risk of extinction and accordingly its conservation status should be considered as Endangered. The most serious threat at the type locality is habitat change or succession caused by invasion of Melaleuca halmaturorum, which is creating a dense shaded paperbark forest that is reducing both the preferred open sunny microhabitat and the extent of the larval food plant. Recognition of C. noelkeri sp. nov. as a flagship taxon is likely to enhance the conservation of biodiversity in remnant flood plain/salt-lake ecosystems of temperate south-eastern Australia.

Predicting the distribution ofEndophyllum osteospermi(Uredinales, Pucciniaceae) in Australia based on its climatic requirements and distribution in South Africa

The perennial bush Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monilifera (Asteraceae) is infected by the autoecious, microcyclic rust fungus Endophyllum osteospermi. Both organisms are native to South Africa, whilst the plant has also become naturalised in Australia where it is the target of a biological control program. E. osteospermi is under consideration as a biocontrol agent for this weed. Temperature and light requirements for aecidioid teliospore germination and basidiospore development were studied, as was the nuclear cycle during germination. Aecidioid teliospores germinated between 10 and 20°C, with 15°C as optimum temperature. Light, and particularly near-UV light, stimulated germination whereas germination was poor under dark conditions. A period of 6–8 h of light was the minimum needed to obtain germination levels equivalent to continuous light. The temperature requirements for basidiospore development differed from that for aecidioid teliospore germination. Optimal basidiospore production was at 15°C, but a rapid decrease occurred at higher temperatures, with few developing at 19°C, despite a high germination rate at this temperature. Two nuclear divisions occurred within 12 h of germination initiation to produce a metabasidium with three or four nuclei. A third nuclear division occurred in the basidiospores that then germinated between 24 and 48 h. Plants inoculated under controlled conditions took 5 to 24 months after inoculation for witches’ broom symptoms to begin to develop. The detailed life cycle of E. osteospermi is presented. A Geographic Information System (GIS) approach was used to develop a model of the potential distribution of E. osteospermi in South Africa. This was based on monthly average climate surfaces with parameters derived from the above experiments. The parameters were modified so that the majority of all recorded localities of E. osteospermi in South Africa were included, whilst at the same time including only the minimum geographic area. The same model was applied to Australia to suggest a potential distribution of the rust fungus if released in Australia for the biological control of C. monilifera ssp. monilifera. This potential distribution was similar to one generated using the climate matching computer program CLIMEX, but gave greater spatial accuracy, at least in South Africa. Both approaches indicate that E. osteospermi should establish in temperate south-eastern Australia where C. monilifera ssp. monilifera is an invasive weed.