Television Exposure Research Articles

Inadequacy of antenatal care attendance and its determinants amongst pregnant women in Ethiopia based on the 2019 Mini-Ethiopian demographic health survey: secondary data analysis

BackgroundInadequacy of antenatal care (ANC) utilization is a prominent public health problem, causing poor pregnancy outcomes. In developing countries, including Ethiopia, having ANC coverage, many pregnant women do not achieve the first ANC visits in the first trimester and receive at least four ANC visits. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the magnitude and identify determinants of inadequacy of antenatal care attendance amongst pregnant women in Ethiopia.MethodsInadequate ANC attendance was defined as combining starting ANC visits after the first trimester and having fewer than four visits together. The study used secondary data from the 2019 mini-demographic and health survey. A weighted sample of 3927 pregnant women was included in this study. Data management and further analysis were performed using STATA 14 software. A multivariable generalized estimating equation analysis was used to identify determinants associated with inadequacy of antenatal care attendance. The Adjusted odds ratio with a 95% confidence interval was used to identify significant variables for inadequate antenatal care visits.ResultOverall, 78.5% of pregnant women did not attend adequate antenatal care visits during pregnancy. In multivariable generalized estimating equation analysis, women aged 25 to 34 years (AOR = 0.77, 95% CI: 0.61–0.95), being educated (AOR = 0.31; 95% CI: 0.22–0.45), and being wealthier index (AOR = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.51–0.88) were less likely to inadequate antenatal care attendance. Whereas being rural residents (AOR = 1.49; 95% CI:1.08–2.07), no television exposure (AOR = 1.51; 95% CI:1.1–2.06), having more family members in the household (AOR = 1.81; 95% CI: 1.11–2.95), and women from semi-peripheral region (AOR = 1.92; 95% CI: 1.42–2.59) were higher odds of being associated with inadequacy of antenatal care attendance.ConclusionsThe prevalence of Inadequate antenatal care attendance amongst pregnant women in Ethiopia is still High. The study identifies significant variables that could be positively and negatively associated with inadequate antenatal care visits. Health education interventions should target uneducated, poorer, and rural women to attend early antenatal care and use at least four antenatal care utilization for early detection of complications during pregnancy and delivery.

What’s on and who’s Watching? Combining People-Meter Data and Subtitle Data to Explore Television Exposure to Political News

ABSTRACT Understanding television viewing behavior is highly relevant, as it remains an important source of political news for many. Nowadays, viewers can choose between a growing diversity of formats covering political news, varying from traditional news broadcasts to late-night talk shows and satire. Yet, we have little to no information about the specific political content provided by television programs; and much less how this can be connected to viewing behavior and audience characteristics (political interest, ideology). Moving forward, using unique Dutch audience-meter data (3,672 viewers from 1,761 different households) from July 2017 to July 2018, we explore who is exposed to which (political) topic in what type of television program. We use automated content analysis to analyze the subtitles of television programs (N = 21,480). Our results indicate that situational factors, such as lead-in and lead-out effects affect news exposure. We also found that political interest does not only shape the volume but also the composition of audiences’ political information diets. Results show that higher political interest was associated with television audiences receiving a greater proportion of their news from public affairs and opinion programs. There does not appear to be any difference in patterns for political ideology; similar proportions of each type of program make up the information diets for both left and right viewers.

Television and family demography: Evidence from a natural experiment in East Germany

This paper examines the causal effects of television exposure on individual decisions regarding marriage, divorce, and family planning by utilizing a natural experiment in the German Democratic Republic during the period of German division. I exploit the fact that individuals in some East German areas could not receive Western television due to their place of residence before reunification in 1990. By analyzing survey data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, my results reveal that exposure to Western TV significantly reduced the likelihood of marriage and childbirth while increasing the probability of divorce among East Germans. Analyzing administrative data at the county level supports these findings. In addition, survey data from the late 1980s indicates that the observed effects are primarily due to changes in attitudes towards relationships and family life, particularly among women.

Screen Time and its Relation to Toddlers’ Development

Abstract Background Screen-time or digital-screen exposure is the duration of time spent by the individual in using electronic/digital media like television (TV), smartphone, tablet or computer. Even background television exposure has been shown to impact development by reducing the amount and quality of interactions between parents and children. Studies showed that while babies do not absorb content from TV, it can catch and hold their attention. Aim of the Work The aim of the current study was to determine the effect of screen time on different developmental aspects of toddlers. Patients and Methods This was a cross sectional observational study that was conducted in the outpatients’ and Neurodevelopment Clinics, Children’s Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University on 83 toddlers aged from 1 year to 3 years old who were exposed to screens for a longer duration than the recommended according to the American Academy of Paediatrics (AAP) guidelines. Of 13 months’ time frame, total duration of screen exposure was calculated in minutes/day and was correlated to the composite scores of Bayley scales of infants’ and toddlers’ development third edition. Results A significant negative correlations were found between duration of screen time exposure and all Bayley scales (cognitive, language and motor) composite scores and language scale is more affected. Conclusion The results of this study supported the directional association between screen time and child development. Parents and all the society should be educated about the hazards of screen time exposure on infants and toddlers’ development.

RAZČLENITEV ZNANSTVENEGA USTVARJANJA V SKLOPU ULIČNE VADBE Z AKROBATSKIMI SESTAVINAMI

In recent years, the number of practitioners of disciplines such as parkour, break dance or calisthenics (freestyle or street workout) has increased. These disciplines share common characteristics, such as an unregulated street origin and a focus on acrobatics. This study aimed to analyze the state of scientific publications related to these acrobatic street sports. A bibliometric analysis was conducted, applying traditional bibliometric laws to scientific documentation found in journals indexed in WoS and Scopus. Data processing and visualization were performed using Bibliometrix and Excel. A total of 199 articles published between 1984 and 2024 were identified, indicating exponential growth. Among these, 139 papers were related to parkour, 48 to breakdance, and 12 to street workout. A review of 158 journals revealed that they contained related publications, although their distribution did not conform to Bradford’s model, showig only two areas. Among 417 authors identified, 22 were deemed prolific and 12 prominent. France emerged as the most prolific country, followed by the USA. The 553 author keywords were categorized into three groups, each associated with one of the sports. The 26 most cited papers were selected as relevant, demonstrating a correlation between the increase in publications and the popularization of these sports, largely due to television exposure. The "International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics” emerged as the most prolific journal. The most relevant authors identified in each sport were Signey Grosprêtre (parkour); Max Daniel Kauther and Christian Wedemeyer (breakdance); and Javier Sanchez-Martinez (street workout).

Queer on TV: Using the minority stress model to explore the role of LGBQ+ television exposure in LGBQ+ audiences’ psychological well-being and identity status.

Queer on TV: Using the minority stress model to explore the role of LGBQ+ television exposure in LGBQ+ audiences’ psychological well-being and identity status.

Factors Impacting Chinese Older Adults' Intention to Prevent COVID-19 in the Post-COVID-19 Pandemic Era: Survey Study.

Understanding the factors influencing individuals' health decisions is a dynamic research question. Particularly, after China announced the deregulation of the COVID-19 epidemic, health risks escalated rapidly. The convergence of "no longer controlled" viruses and the infodemic has created a distinctive social period during which multiple factors may have influenced people's decision-making. Among these factors, the precautionary intentions of older individuals, as a susceptible health group, deserve special attention. This study aims to examine the intention of older adults to engage in preventive behaviors and the influencing factors, including social, media, and individual factors, within the context of the postepidemic era. Drawing upon the structural influence model of communication, this study tests the potential mediating roles of 3 different types of media exposure between cognitive and structural social capital and protective behavior intention, as well as the moderating role of negative emotions between social capital and media exposure. In this study, a web survey was used to collect self-reported quantitative data on social capital, media exposure, negative emotions, and the intention to prevent COVID-19 among older adults aged ≥60 years (N=399) in China. The results indicate that cognitive social capital significantly influenced protective behavior intention (P<.001), with cell phone exposure playing an additional impactful role (P<.001). By contrast, newspaper and radio exposure and television exposure mediated the influence of structural social capital on protective behavior intention (P<.001). Furthermore, negative emotions played a moderating role in the relationship between cognitive social capital and cell phone exposure (P<.001). This study suggests that using tailored communication strategies across various media channels can effectively raise health awareness among older adults dealing with major pandemics in China, considering their diverse social capital characteristics and emotional states.

Supplemental Material for Queer on TV: Using the Minority Stress Model to Explore the Role of LGBQ+ Television Exposure in LGBQ+ Audiences’ Psychological Well-Being and Identity Status

Supplemental Material for Queer on TV: Using the Minority Stress Model to Explore the Role of LGBQ+ Television Exposure in LGBQ+ Audiences’ Psychological Well-Being and Identity Status

Communication and Social Determinants of Cancer Preventive Behaviors in Adolescents From Low Socio-Economic Backgrounds in India: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Promoting cancer preventive behaviors among adolescents, especially those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, is crucial due to the significant impact of health behaviors in adolescence on disease risk in adulthood. With India witnessing a rise in cancer incidence and mortality, adolescence becomes a pivotal stage for establishing healthy habits, emphasizing the need for early cancer prevention efforts. This cross-sectional study used survey data from 2242 adolescents attending public schools of Mumbai, India. Multiple logistic regression was conducted to determine the associations between cancer preventive behaviors and: (1) the individual and social determinants of health, and (2) media exposure. Merely 21.5% of the adolescents ate fruits and vegetables daily, 50% of the adolescents exercised 3 or more times a week, and 20% of the adolescents admitted having used tobacco and/or supari. Girls were found to have lower odds of exercising, as well as using tobacco and/or supari. Wealth and father's education were positively associated with all 3 cancer preventive behaviors. Media exposure was negatively associated, with television exposure linked to reduced fruits and vegetables consumption, while movies and social media exposure were associated with increased tobacco and/or supari use. Our findings suggest that individual and social determinants of health and media exposure can influence cancer preventive health behaviors in low socio-economic status (SES) adolescents. Efforts to increase awareness to promote cancer preventive behaviors among the adolescents, particularly low SES adolescents, a population more vulnerable to poor health outcomes, is critical.

Association between mass media exposure and infant and young child feeding practices in India: a cross-sectional study

The first two years of life is a critical window for good nutrition. Promoting infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices in the first two years can help improve child survival and promote healthy growth and development. Assessment of IYCF practices is important, especially in developing countries like India where optimal IYCF practices can potentially prevent 12% of all deaths under 5 years of age, to promote awareness and intervene appropriately. The objective of our study is to generate evidence for the association between different types of mass media and appropriate IYCF practices in India, including optimal breastfeeding and appropriate complementary feeding practices. A positive association between them can point to intervention at scale. We analyzed data from India’s National Family Health Survey 5 (NFHS-5), 2019–2021. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the association of appropriate IYCF practices with mass media exposure. After controlling for demographics and socioeconomic status, the analyses showed that, overall, women who had exposure to television followed by newspaper and movies, had higher odds of adopting the recommended IYCF practices. The results also showed that the association of media exposure varied for different IYCF practices by geography. For instance, in the rural areas, television exposure was positively associated with all the IYCF practices, but in the urban areas, television exposure was positively associated with only early initiation of breastfeeding [OR 1.25; (95% CI 1.1–1.42)]. The study strengthens our understanding that an appropriate selection of mass media channels for intervention programs can promote IYCF practices at scale. Appropriately selecting the type of mass media to create awareness about different IYCF practices, in specific urban–rural settings, could help customize intervention programs to successfully influence IYCF behaviors.

Television Time, Especially During Meals, Is Associated With Less Healthy Dietary Practices in Toddlers

BACKGROUNDWhile several studies examine the relationship between screen time and dietary practices in children and teenagers, there is limited research in toddlers. This study evaluates the association between television (TV) exposure and dietary practices in 2-year-old children. METHODSWe conducted a cross-sectional, secondary data analysis from the Greenlight Intervention Study. Toddlers’ daily TV watching time, mealtime TV, and dietary practices were assessed by caregiver report at the 24-month well-child visit. Separate regression models were used and adjusted for sociodemographic/household characteristics and clinic site. RESULTSFive hundred and thirty-two toddlers were included (51% Latino; 30% non-Latino Black; 59% ≤$20,000 annual household income). Median daily TV watching time was 42 minutes (interquartile range: 25, 60); 25% reported the TV was “usually on” during mealtimes. After adjustment, toddlers who watched more TV daily had higher odds of consuming sugar-sweetened beverages, fast food, and more junk food; those watching less TV had higher odds of consuming more fruits/vegetables. Those with the TV “usually on” during mealtimes were more likely to consume sugar-sweetened beverages (aOR 3.72 [95% confidence interval {CI} 2.16–6.43]), fast food (aOR 2.83 [95%CI 1.54–5.20]), and more junk food (aOR 4.25 [95%CI 2.71–6.65]). CONCLUSIONSAmong toddlers from primarily minoritized populations and of lower socioeconomic status, those who watched more TV daily and usually had the TV on during meals had significantly less healthy dietary practices, even after adjusting for known covariates. This study supports the current American Academy of Pediatrics screen time guidelines and underscores the importance of early counseling on general and mealtime TV.

Media exposure, trustworthiness of sources and the health information literacy knowledge gap: a study in China.

Health information literacy (HIL), as an essential part of the wellbeing of citizens, is a crucial indicator used to measure a country's primary public health level. The present study collected 1051 samples in southern China to examine the factors predicting HIL. The results showed that males, those less educated, and older adults had lower HIL. Television exposure, unofficial Internet exposure, trust in government and trust in doctors and medical institutions were positively associated with HIL. In contrast, newspapers, radio exposure and trust in web celebrities were negatively associated with HIL. Official Internet media exposure helps to bridge the HIL knowledge gap generated by differences in education level, while trust in celebrities-especially web celebrities-could widen the HIL knowledge gap. This study extends the knowledge gap theory in health communication in the Chinese context and provides pathways for future health interventions.

The home literacy environment and television exposure as mediators between migration background and preschool children’s linguistic abilities

The development of key linguistic abilities is essential for young children and their academic success at school, in particular for children with a migration background who are at a greater risk of developing language deficits. Here, family interactions can provide valuable opportunities to support children’s linguistic learning within the Home Literacy Environment (HLE). Although the importance of the HLE for children’s language acquisition has often been investigated, research has not focused on specific facets of the HLE and other influencing factors that may be associated with early linguistic abilities such as television exposure (TE). A sample of 190 preschool children (Mage= 63.58 months, SDage = 4.42) was used to analyse the associations of the facets of the HLE and TE with children’s early linguistic abilities, namely phonological awareness (PA), vocabulary, and letter knowledge. In particular, this study aims to understand the role of the HLE facets and TE as potential mediators between migration background and children’s early linguistic abilities, when controlling for socioeconomical status (SES), children’s sex and age. The findings indicate that the association between migration background and children’s early linguistic abilities was fully mediated by all four facets of the HLE and by TE. Consequently, these mediators may be good targets for intervention and the support of preschool children’s linguistic development.

COVID-19 Infodemic and Impacts on the Mental Health of Older People: Cross-sectional Multicenter Survey Study

Background The COVID-19 pandemic received widespread media coverage due to its novelty, an early lack of data, and the rapid rise in deaths and cases. This excessive coverage created a secondary “infodemic” that was considered to be a serious public and mental health problem by the World Health Organization and the international scientific community. The infodemic particularly affected older individuals, specifically those who are vulnerable to misinformation due to political positions, low interpretive and critical analysis capacity, and limited technical-scientific knowledge. Thus, it is important to understand older people’s reaction to COVID-19 information disseminated by the media and the effect on their lives and mental health. Objective We aimed to describe the profile of exposure to COVID-19 information among older Brazilian individuals and the impact on their mental health, perceived stress, and the presence of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Methods This cross-sectional, exploratory study surveyed 3307 older Brazilians via the web, social networks, and email between July 2020 and March 2021. Descriptive analysis and bivariate analysis were performed to estimate associations of interest. Results Major proportions of the 3307 participants were aged 60 to 64 years (n=1285, 38.9%), female (n=2250, 68.4%), and married (n=1835, 55.5%) and self-identified as White (n=2364, 71.5%). Only 295 (8.9%) had never started or completed a basic education. COVID-19 information was mainly accessed on television (n=2680, 81.1%) and social networks (n=1943, 58.8%). Television exposure was ≥3 hours in 1301 (39.3%) participants, social network use was 2 to 5 hours in 1084 (32.8%) participants, and radio exposure was ≥1 hour in 1223 (37%) participants. Frequency of exposure to social networks was significantly associated with perceived stress (P=.04) and GAD (P=.01). A Bonferroni post hoc test revealed significantly different perceived stress in participants who were exposed to social networks for 1 hour (P=.04) and those who had no exposure (P=.04). A crude linear regression showed that “some” social media use (P=.02) and 1 hour of exposure to social media (P&lt;.001) were associated with perceived stress. Adjusting for sociodemographic variables revealed no associations with this outcome variable. In a crude logistic regression, some social media use (P&lt;.001) and 2 to 5 hours of exposure to social media (P=.03) were associated with GAD. Adjusting for the indicated variables showed that some social network use (P&lt;.001) and 1 hour (P=.04) and 2 to 5 hours (P=.03) of exposure to social media were associated with GAD. Conclusions Older people, especially women, were often exposed to COVID-19–related information through television and social networks; this affected their mental health, specifically GAD and stress. Thus, the impact of the infodemic should be considered during anamnesis for older people, so that they can share their feelings about it and receive appropriate psychosocial care.

Prevalence and determinants of anemia among children aged from 6 to 59 months in Liberia: a multilevel analysis of the 2019/20 Liberia demographic and health survey data.

Anemia is a serious worldwide public health issue that happens at any stage of life but primarily affects young kids and pregnant mothers. Although anemia has a significant impact on child health, its magnitude and associated factors in children aged 6-59 months have not been yet studied in Liberia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the prevalence and determinants of anemia in children aged 6-59 months in Liberia. The data was extracted from Liberia Demographic and Health Survey, conducted from October 2019 to February 2020. The sample was obtained using a stratified two-stage cluster sampling technique. An overall weighted sample of 2,524 kids aged 6-59 months was involved in the final analysis. We used Stata version 14 software for data extraction and analysis. A multilevel logistic regression model was employed to identify factors associated with anemia. Variables with a P-value of <0.2 in the bivariable logistic regression analysis were selected as candidates for multivariable analysis. In multivariable analysis, the adjusted odds ratios (AOR) with the 95% confidence interval (CI) were declared as the determinants of anemia. The prevalence of anemia in children aged 6-59 months in Liberia was 70.8% [95% CI: 68.9%, 72.5%]. Of these, 3.4% were severe anemia, 38.3% were moderate anemia and 29.1% were mild anemia. Children aged 6-23 and 24-42 months, being stunted, children from households with unimproved toilet facilities, children from households with unimproved water sources, and lack of media (television) exposure were significantly associated with higher odds of anemia. However, using mosquito bed nets, living in the Northwestern and Northcentral region were significantly associated with lower odds of anemia among children 6-59 months. In this study, anemia in kids aged 6-59 months in Liberia was a main public health issue. Age of the child, stunting, toilet facility, water source, exposure to television, mosquito bed net use, and region were significant determinants of anemia. Therefore, it is better to provide intervention for the early detection and management of stunted children. Similarly, interventions should be strengthened to address unimproved water sources, unimproved toilet facilities, and lack of media exposure.

Mediating effect of eating pattern on the relationship between television exposure and caries in children.

Behavioral characteristics may also take part in the etiology of dental caries. Sedentary behavior, especially watching television, is associated with increased intake of foods high in fat or free sugar, which could influence the occurrence of dental caries. The aim of this study was to assess the mediating effect of eating pattern on the relationship between television exposure time and the presence of dental caries in children. A cross-sectional study was conducted with a representative sample of 580 parent-child dyads with children aged 7 to 8 years in 20 public schools in Pelotas, Brazil. Parents or legal guardians were interviewed and provided information on demographic/socioeconomic data, children's daily television exposure time, and answered the Biological Rhythms Interview for Assessment in Neuropsychiatry for Kids (BRIAN-K-eating pattern domain). Caries was evaluated through clinical examination. The mediating effect of eating pattern on the relationship between television exposure and presence of dental caries was estimated using the parametric g-formula. Prevalence of dental caries was 63%, and 22% of children watched TV 4 or more hours per day. Television exposure had no direct effect on the dental caries experience [odds ratio (OR): 1.05 (95% confidence interval (95%CI): 0.92-1.19)]. Nevertheless, difficulty maintaining regular eating pattern mediated the natural indirect effect of television exposure time (≥ 4 hours/day) on dental caries experience [OR: 1.07 (95%CI): 1.01-1.14)]. The results of this study confirm the indirect pathway between television viewing and dental caries and the role of disordered eating patterns in this association.

Risk Assessment on Visual Acuity among Elementary Pupils in the Heritage City of Vigan

Children's vision is linked with the Global Goals for Sustainable Development. The Comprehensive School Eye Health Program's mandate is to prevent, detect, and treat eye disorders in children to realize their rights and enhance their growth and development. The study examined the association between visual acuity and personal factors and the academic performance of 491 pupils of three elementary schools in Vigan City. It used the descriptive correlational research. Data were collected through observation, questionnaire- checklist, and records review and treated by Frequency count, percentage, and simple linear correlation analysis. Findings showed that the majority of the respondents belong to age 10 and 11, male, grade VI, without a family history of vision problems, grandmother commonly suffer vision problem, preferred fruits and vegetables, had 8-10 hours’ sleep, television, and cellphone exposure of 0-1 hour daily, and sits while reading. Most respondents have an average visual acuity of 20/20 – 20/25, based on a self-reported result of the Vision Development Quality of Life checklist. The study yielded a significant relationship between quality of Vision (COQV) and a family history of eye problems. Likewise, a significant relationship existed between visual acuity (Snellen's Chart measurement) on both eyes and gadgets used.

Knowledge Gap Hypothesis and Pandemics: Covid-19 Knowledge, Communication Inequality, and Media Literacy in Lebanon

The study examines the knowledge gap hypothesis during the Covid-19 pandemic in a country experiencing severe social, political, and economic turmoil and inequality. The research design assesses Covid-19 knowledge through 13 variables and incorporates income, education, gender, and media literacy among the socioeconomic status variables. It also includes television exposure, social media exposure, and social media posting as media use measures. A cross-sectional survey of adults living in Lebanon was implemented between March 27 and April 23, 2020. The study aimed for a nationally representative probability sample of 1,536 participants (95% CI, ±2.5%) and received 792 valid responses (51.6% response rate). The results show a positive relationship between Covid-19 knowledge and education, media literacy, and social media exposure, but no relationship between Covid-19 knowledge and income, gender, television exposure, and social media posting behavior. The evidence shows a widening of the knowledge gap for those more likely to post on social media and a narrowing of the knowledge gap for those more exposed to social media news, but the observed narrowing of the knowledge gap for television exposure was not statistically generalizable. Finally, the evidence shows that media literacy maintains the knowledge gap by almost identically increasing the knowledge level for both low and high socioeconomic groups, although the limitations in measuring media literacy merit further exploration.

Conceptualizing U.S. educational television as preparation for future learning

ABSTRACT Children sometimes fail to transfer lessons gleaned from educational television. However, exposure to this content might impart foundational knowledge that facilitates children’s learning from subsequent formal instruction. This possibility is consistent with the predictions of a theoretical framework known as “preparation for future learning” (PFL). In the current experiment, 4- to 6-year-old children (N = 109) watched one of three educational science programs about buoyancy or a control program about magnification. Afterward, all children observed a live demonstration about buoyancy and participated in two assessments of learning (i.e. once after television exposure and again after the live demonstration). Children who watched the buoyancy programs performed better across more assessments than children who watched the control program. Unexpectedly, more consistent benefits emerged among children who watched animated (vs. live action) programs. These findings provided mixed support for the PFL framework, and recommendations for future research are provided.

The Mental Health of Older Adults in the Densely Populated Areas of Tacna Region-Peru, 2021: Implications of the COVID-19 Information.

The purpose of this research was to analyze the implications of exposure to various news channels that broadcast information on COVID-19 and their impact on the mental health of older adults in the sparsely populated area of the Tacna Region during the year 2021. The present study used a descriptive correlational type of quantitative approach on a sample of 389 older adults aged 60 years and over, who were recruited by non-probabilistic convenience sampling. For the application of the survey technique, the instrument used was a questionnaire modified by the authors. In terms of research ethics for the development of the study, the respondents provided informed consent, and other ethical considerations were addressed. In relation to sociodemographic variables of mental health, it was found that women had a greater incidence of anxiety (p < 0.01) and that people with fewer years of study had a greater incidence of depression (p < 0.01) and anxiety in sparsely populated areas. Exposure to news through television was associated with depression, and news obtained from other people was associated with depression (p < 0.001). An association was also found between the number of hours of television news and stress (p < 0.05), and radio news was associated with anxiety (p < 0.05). In terms of psychological consequences, the highest mean for television exposure was fear, while the greatest psychological consequence of radio news was fear, followed by stress and awareness. Finally, negative, inverse, and significant relationships were found that indicate protective factors, such as depression with awareness and indignation, and anxiety was inversely related to awareness.