Irrigation Techniques Research Articles

Shallow-buried drip irrigation promoted the enrichment of beneficial microorganisms in surface soil

The Xiliao River plain is situated in the “Golden Belt of maize production worldwide” and it is one of the few high-yield areas of well-irrigated maize in China. Drip irrigation is recognized as one of the most water-efficient techniques for farmland irrigation. However, because of the flawed recovery mechanism of plastic film, many years of continuous accumulation of plastic film mulch have resulted in a considerable amount of plastic film residue in the soil, extensively harming the soil environment. This study aimed to investigate the effects of two primary irrigation methods, shallow-buried drip irrigation and under-mulch drip irrigation, with varying levels of irrigation on soil microbial diversity in the Xiliao River plain. A split-plot experiment was conducted, and the amount of irrigation was sub-treated at three levels: 40% (1440 m3 ha−1), 50% (1800 m3 ha−1), and 60% (2160 m3 ha−1) of that used for traditional irrigation. We studied the effects of water saving on soil bacteria and fungi using high-throughput sequencing. The results showed that in the 0–20 cm soil layer, with the same irrigation, the operational taxonomic unit number of bacteria in shallow-buried drip irrigation was greater than that of the under-mulch drip irrigation. In the 20–40 cm soil layer, as irrigation decreased, the operational taxonomic unit numbers of bacteria and fungi in both drip irrigation methods decreased. There was a significant difference in the relative abundance of microorganisms between the two drip irrigation methods with 50% irrigation. Compared with film drip irrigation, shallow-buried drip irrigation increased the relative abundance of Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Acidobacteria in the 0–20 cm soil layer and increased the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and decreased the relative abundance of Firmicutes in the 20–40 cm soil layer. With reduced shallow-buried drip irrigation, the relative abundance of Pseudomonas initially decreased and then increased, whereas the abundance of other genus pairs remained stable. Under-mulch drip irrigation reduced the stability of the soil microbial network in the topsoil. With decreasing irrigation, the relative abundance of Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Chytridiomycota increased in the 0–40 cm soil layer when using shallow-buried drip irrigation, whereas the relative abundance of Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota decreased when using under-mulch drip irrigation. Shallow-buried drip irrigation enriched microbial communities, which were significantly positively correlated with organic matter and available nutrient content, including Holophagae, which prefers a dominant plant rhizosphere soil, Thermoanaerobaculaceae, which plays an important role in nitrogen transformation, and Microtrichales, which is crucial for the hydrolysis and utilization of complex organic matter. The microplastic-degrading Nocardioidaceae was enriched in the soil of under-mulch drip irrigation, and Propionibacteriales, which maintained a high proportion of species under high salinity, were enriched in the soil of under-mulch drip irrigation.

Strategies for water productivity enhancement in maize—A comprehensive review

AbstractMaize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important cereal crop produced globally after wheat and rice and provides the basic raw materials for starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food sweeteners and fuel. It is grown on an area of 201.98 Mha worldwide, with an average productivity of 5.75 t ha−1. Maize is mostly grown during the rainy season, but it performs better during the winter season with irrigation and resource conservation techniques. The average productivity of maize during the rainy and winter seasons is 4.3 and 6.2 t ha−1, respectively. The total production is as low as 2.7 Mt in Nepal to 362.78 Mt in the USA. Maize performs better under the furrow and drip irrigation methods, and the range of water requirements is between 425–789 and 351–685 mm, respectively. Plastic and straw mulching has enhanced irrigation water use efficiency up to 34.0–47.2 and 15.3–24.1 kg ha−1 mm−1, respectively. The crop coefficients, Kc values, for maize crops ranges between 0.2 and 1.2. Of the different methods of irrigation, the drip irrigation method enhances the maize yield by 28% and plays a great role in corn yield. This paper discusses various strategies for enhancing global maize yield.

Exploring Naga Life, Culture, and Gender Representation through the Writings of Easterine Kire: A Study of Don't Run, My Love and the Nagas' Struggle for Self-Determination

This research focuses on the Nagas, a large population residing along the Indo-Myanmar border, known for their distinct culture and language. The study examines the works of Easterine Kire, a renowned literary figure from Nagaland, with a particular emphasis on her novel Don't Run, My Love. The objective is to explore how Kire's writings provide insights into Naga life, culture, and society. The Nagas, comprising approximately three million people, form a multi-ethnic community dispersed across different countries. Since 1947, they have been actively involved in a movement for self-determination, striving for a separate Nagaland state. However, their journey has been marked by ethnic conflicts and insurgencies as they struggle for cultural autonomy and political recognition. This research analyses the impact of colonialism, regionalism, and identity politics on the Naga community, considering the historical and sociological contexts that shape their collective consciousness as a separate and independent nation. Drawing on Kire's novel, the study examines the folktale or allegory presented in Don't Run, My Love, which explores the complexities and dangers of romantic love through the perspectives of two female characters, Visenuo and Atuonuo. By challenging the prevailing notion of male supremacy in patriarchal societies, Kire highlights the inner strength of these women, contributing to a broader discourse on gender roles and empowerment. The narrative also delves into the Naga cycle of life, seasons, and harvest, providing insights into their agrarian practices, particularly the Angami technique of land irrigation through terracing and irrigation.

Compost tea supplied by partial root-zone drying irrigation affected growth and productivity of eggplants and cucumbers grown in succession

ABSTRACT Partial root-zone drying irrigation techniques and application of compost tea are practices that, when used separately, have demonstrated beneficial effects on crop productivity in organic farming, with efficient use of natural resources. The aim of this work was to investigate effects of the combination of applying compost tea and using partial root-zone drying irrigation on the growth of eggplants (Solanum melongena L.) and cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.) grown in succession, on the quantity and quality of the fruits produced, and on soil nutrients after the two growing seasons. The objective was to assess how the two factors, irrigation technique and fertilising method, and the combination of the two, influenced the parameters investigated. Application of compost tea via partial root-zone drying irrigation resulted in well-developed plants and high yields with good quality fruit for both eggplants and cucumbers and did not lead to depletion of soil nutrients, compared with the use commercial organic fertilizers or standard irrigation. Most of the investigated parameters were affected by the interaction of the two factors, though the yield of both crops was more affected by the irrigation technique, while the fertilising approach had a greater effect on the quality of the cucumber fruit. Nevertheless, the combination of compost tea with partial root-zone drying irrigation resulted in competitive performance against the other treatments, whilst reducing the use of resources. The findings showed the effectiveness of applying compost tea by partial root-zone drying irrigation and this was recommended for organic agriculture systems.

Smart high-yield tomato cultivation: precision irrigation system using the Internet of Things.

The Internet of Things (IOT)-based smart farming promises ultrafast speeds and near real-time response. Precision farming enabled by the Internet of Things has the potential to boost efficiency and output while reducing water use. Therefore, IoT devices can aid farmers in keeping track crop health and development while also automating a variety of tasks (such as moisture level prediction, irrigation system, crop development, and nutrient levels). The IoT-based autonomous irrigation technique makes exact use of farmers' time, money, and power. High crop yields can be achieved through consistent monitoring and sensing of crops utilizing a variety of IoT sensors to inform farmers of optimal harvest times. In this paper, a smart framework for growing tomatoes is developed, with influence from IoT devices or modules. With the help of IoT modules, we can forecast soil moisture levels and fine-tune the watering schedule. To further aid farmers, a smartphone app is currently in development that will provide them with crucial data on the health of their tomato crops. Large-scale experiments validate the proposed model's ability to intelligently monitor the irrigation system, which contributes to higher tomato yields.

Biofilm Removal from In Vitro Narrow Geometries Using Single and Dual Pulse Er:YAG Laser Photoacoustic Irrigation.

The disinfection and removal of biofilm from titanium dental implants remains a great challenge in oral medicine. Here we present results of novel photoacoustic irrigation laser modalities for biofilm removal in model geometries mimicking the peri-implant pocket. The efficacy of single pulse (Er:YAG-SSP) and dual pulse (Er:YAG-AutoSWEEPS) photoacoustic irrigation modalities were determined for Enterococcus faecalis biofilm decontamination from titanium surfaces in narrow cylindrical and square gap geometries. The density of bacteria as well as the number of live bacteria were determined prior and after different photoacoustic treatments. Both SSP and AutoSWEEPS photoacoustic irrigation techniques removed at least 92% of biofilm bacteria during the 10 s photoacoustic treatment. The effectiveness of cleaning was better in the narrow square gap geometry compared to the cylindrical geometry. The dual pulse Er:YAG-AutoSWEEPS photoacoustic irrigation showed better results compared to SSP modality. No chemical adjuvants were needed to boost the effectiveness of the photoacoustic irrigation in the saline solution. The results imply that photoacoustic irrigation is an efficient cleaning method for debridement and decontamination in narrow geometries and should be considered as a new therapeutic option for the treatment of peri-implant diseases.

A comprehensive and systematic study in smart drip and sprinkler irrigation systems

Many regions of the world have unpredictable rainfall, making agriculture impossible to sustain without diverse irrigation technologies. Irrigation has a huge impact on crop productivity, but traditional irrigation systems can be replaced with Advanced and Smart irrigation techniques, which can enhance production yield even more. In arid regions where water is scarce, drip irrigation is a good option because water is supplied at a low rate and it also saves a lot of water, whereas, in horticulture, sprinkler systems are widely used because they do not require large pipelines all over large lands and instead spray water droplets all over the area like rain. The purpose of this article is to analyze the various types of smart drip and sprinkler irrigation systems with the help of IoT and also find solution for the various challenges found in the various methods. Various irrigation technologies which include IoT are reviewed, with a focus on smart drip and sprinkler systems. Various comparisons have been conducted between various methods to find the most efficient one in both irrigation techniques. A table summarizing the similarities between the various methods is also presented. Finally, all of this leads to saving water and making farmers' work easier.

Cleaning Efficiency of Different Irrigation Techniques in Simulated Severely Curved Complex Root Canal Systems

IntroductionTo compare the biofilm-mimicking hydrogel removal efficiency of laser-activated irrigation (LAI) with five other irrigation techniques in simulated curved root canals with lateral canals. MethodsThree-dimensional–printed root canal models (60°-curvature, radius 5 mm; dimension 25/.06) with a total length of 20 mm and lateral canals in all directions at 2, 5, and 8 mm (diameter 0.2 mm) from the apex were filled with a colored biofilm-mimicking hydrogel. The following protocols (each 3 × 20 seconds continuous irrigation with distilled water 3 ml/20 seconds; n = 20) were carried out: conventional needle irrigation; manual agitation ([MA], gutta-percha point 25/.06); EndoActivator (=sonically-activated irrigation EndoActivator, 25/.04); EDDY (=sonically-activated irrigation EDDY [SAI-E]; 25/.04); ultrasonically-activated irrigation and LAI (Erbium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet laser; P400FL tip at canal entrance; 25 pps, 50 mJ, 300 μs). Standardized photos were taken with a microscope and the removal of the hydrogel was determined as a percentage for the entire system, the main canal and the lateral canals. Statistical analysis was performed using analysis of variance and Scheffé test (P = .05). ResultsLAI (89.3% ± 5.9%) showed the greatest hydrogel removal followed by SAI-E (65.5% ± 3.3%) and ultrasonically-activated irrigation (59.1% ± 4.7%), with significant differences between these groups (P < .05). Needle irrigation, MA, and sonically-activated irrigation EndoActivator performed equally (P > .05) and obtained the significantly lowest values (P < .05). LAI and SAI-E showed the significantly best hydrogel removal from the main canal (P < .05). At all three levels, LAI removed significantly more hydrogel from the lateral canals than all other techniques (P < .05). ConclusionsLAI was superior to other techniques in both the entire system and the lateral canals in removing the hydrogel. SAI-E achieved comparable results in the main canal.

Developing smart sustainable irrigation matrix (SIM)-based model for selection of best irrigation techniques: A framework to achieve SDGs

Adopting sustainable agriculture practices using multi-criteria evaluation methods couldn't adequately describe the correlation between the irrigation techniques and most of the environmental and techno-economic factors. Hence, this study developed a novel sustainable irrigation matrix (SIM)-related model to evaluate four irrigation scenarios (a combination of furrow and drip techniques and chemical and nanomaterial fertilizers) in tomato cultivation to fulfill the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and their targets. The SIM model included main criteria (three sustainability pillars), and sub-criteria, i.e., irrigation water and nitrogen use efficiency, nitrate leaching, N2O emission, energy input, crop yield, net return, hired farmworkers, education level, and percentage of irrigated area. Data collection included a pot-scale experiment, literature studies, and questionnaires. Results demonstrated that drip/nano-fertilization (DN) was the best irrigation technique, and it was highly influenced by the economic and environmental dimensions, followed by the social pillar of sustainability. Moreover, DN achieved the highest scores on all SDGs except for SDG5 “gender equality” and SDG16 “peace, justice and participation”. These findings were verified by employing sensitivity analysis and an AHP-TOPSIS model, revealing the sustainability of DN irrigation. The study concluded that the proposed SIM-based model could be employed to ensure the sustainable performance of crop irrigation treatments worldwide.

Yield and Water Use Efficiency of Drip Irrigation of Pepper

Drip irrigation is gaining importance in mitigating the consequences of water scarcity even in regions with abundant rainfall. The transition from surface to subsurface drip irrigation is accompanied by numerous problems. To overcome these issues, shallow subsurface drip irrigation can be potentially used as an effective drought control tool that brings additional benefits compared to conventional surface drip irrigation techniques. This research investigated the effects of different calculations of daily crop water requirements, reference evapotranspiration (ETo), and pan evaporation (Eo) on the yield and water use efficiency of pepper irrigated with a surface and shallow subsurface drip irrigation system. The experiment was conducted in field conditions in the Vojvodina region, the northern part of Serbia. The irrigation scheduling was based on the water balance approach. The calculated evapotranspiration rate was about 400 mm for the pepper growing period, regardless of the calculation method. The highest yield of pepper and evapotranspiration water use efficiency was obtained on the Eo variant with surface drip irrigation. However, irrigation water use efficiency showed no statistical significance concerning the calculation of evapotranspiration and irrigation type. The results indicated that both calculation methods and irrigation types can be used in pepper production, but priority should be given to pan-evaporation-based calculation.

Effectiveness of tomato plant growth with drip irrigation techniques in drylands

Dry land with low rainfall results in minimal availability of irrigation water. However, the lack of irrigation water is not an obstacle in cultivation if the right, effective and efficient irrigation method is applied, namely drip irrigation. This study aims to see the effect of applying drip irrigation techniques with different water discharge treatments on tomato plant growth. This research was conducted in Batu Putik Village, East Lombok Regency from August 12, 2020 to September 20, 2020. This research method uses experimental methods by conducting direct experiments in the field. This study used a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with 3 treatments 4 times repeated so that 12 experimental units were obtained. Each treatment was P1 with a 90° tap slope discharge, P2 with a 45° tap slope discharge, and P3 with a 15° tap slope discharge. The research data were analyzed using ANOVA. The results of the drip irrigation technique design performance test showed an average uniformity coefficient percentage of 94% in all treatments. The results of this test provide an insignificant effect on plant height, stem diameter, and number of leaves of tomato plants. So this insignificant result shows that the application in the field in relation to water efficiency should use P1 with less water distribution but gives the same effect as P2, and P3 on tomato plant growth. While in wet and dry stems, there is a significant effect between treatments.

Evaluation of Green Agricultural Development and Its Influencing Factors under the Framework of Sustainable Development Goals: Case Study of Lincang City, an Underdeveloped Mountainous Region of China

This study aims to assess the current status of green agricultural development and its influencing factors in Lincang City, a national innovation demonstration zone for sustainable development; it also seeks to enhance the potential and competitiveness of green agricultural development in underdeveloped border areas. To achieve this, an evaluation index system is constructed encompassing six dimensions. Using a coupled coordination and obstacle degree approach, this study explores the spatiotemporal differences in the level of green agricultural and sustainable development, as well as the power, coupled coordination degree, and factors that negatively impact green agricultural development in Lincang City from 2010 to 2019. The Liang-Kleeman information flow method is applied to uncover the key information flow factors that influence the coupled coordination degree in each county and district of Lincang City. The results reveal several insights: First, the comprehensive score of sustainable green agricultural development increased from 0.4405 to 0.5975 during the study period. Second, the coupling coordination degree of green agricultural development was relatively low, fluctuating between 0.1821 and 0.2816. Overall, the development has shifted from severe imbalance to mild imbalance. Third, the obstacle degree increased by 3.75%. From a systemic perspective, the “resource conservation” layer had the highest barrier level, with the maximum value being observed in Yun County at 25.5%. Further analysis of the indicators reveals that the use of outdated water-saving irrigation techniques has resulted in low irrigation efficiency and excessive water resource waste. This is the main cause of the high barrier levels in terms of water-saving irrigation intensity and effective irrigation area. Moreover, the excessive use of chemical pesticides to enhance vegetable production has contributed to high barrier levels for achieving yields of pollution-free vegetable production per unit area. Finally, the information flow values of the factors influencing the coordinated and harmonious development of green agriculture exhibit significant regional heterogeneity among counties and districts. The highest information flow value for the area of drought- and flood-resistant crop cultivation is in Zhengkang County at 1.86. Based on these results, local government departments and decision-makers should focus on promoting comprehensive improvements in the level of green agricultural development. It is crucial to tailor measures to the specific needs of each county to address the shortcomings in green agricultural development. Additionally, efforts should be made to strengthen the innovation-driven chain of green agricultural development, including production, processing and sales. Enhancing the green agricultural development system is essential for long-term progress.

АКТИВАЦИЯ РАСТВОРА АНТИСЕПТИКА В ИСКРИВЛЕННЫХ КОРНЕВЫХ КАНАЛАХ КАК ЗАЛОГ УСПЕШНОГО ЭНДОДОНТИЧЕСКОГО ЛЕЧЕНИЯ

Endodontic treatment of teeth characterized by a complex anatomy of root canals is an urgent problem of modern dentistry. This article compares the immediate and long-term results of treatment of curved root canals using the sound method of activation of irrigation solution and the standard method of treatment, in which the activation of the solution was not carried out. The purpose of the study: to increase the effectiveness of endodontic treatment of root canals with complex anatomy by using sound methods. Materials and methods: Molars and premolars were examined and treated in 50 patients aged 25-44 years with a diagnosis of chronic apical periodontitis (K 04.5). The diagnosis was established on the basis of basic and additional research methods. The patients underwent diagnostic CBCT before treatment, as well as 6 and 12 months after treatment. The main group consisted of 25 patients in whom sound activation of a 3% sodium hypochlorite solution was used in the treatment of root canals at the stage of final root canal treatment, the control group consisted of 25 patients who used a standard technique of root canal irrigation from an endodontic syringe. Endodontic treatment in patients of both groups was carried out according to the standard protocol of root canal treatment. Mechanical processing was carried out with manual endodontic instruments, and then with machine Ni-Ti files. Drug treatment was carried out with 3% sodium hypochlorite solution and 17% EDTA solution. During the first visit after mechanical and medical treatment, the root canals of patients of both groups were temporarily obstructed with calcium-containing paste "Calasept". Permanent obturation of the root canal was carried out by the method of lateral condensation of gutta-percha, a material based on epoxy resins "AH plus" was used as a siler. As a result of the study, it was revealed that the patients of the main group did not complain in the next 3-7 days after the end of treatment. Dental percussion and mucosal palpation were painless in 23 patients. Slightly pronounced mucosal hyperemia and discomfort during palpation in the projection area of the root tips along the transitional fold were determined in 2 patients. In the control group of patients, during the first 7 days after permanent obturation of the root canals of the teeth, 5 people had pain when biting on the tooth, painful percussion and hyperemia of the mucous membrane in the projection of the root tip of the treated tooth. The remaining 20 patients had no complaints. The analysis of radiographs revealed that 12 months after treatment in patients of the main group, a decrease in the size of periapical foci of bone destruction was noted in all 25 teeth. In 23 teeth there was a complete restoration of the bone structure in the periapical foci, which was 92%, and in 2 teeth there was a partial restoration of the bone structure (6%). The condition without changes in the periapical tissues, or an increase in the focus of bone destruction in patients of the main group 12 months after treatment, we have not been detected. When analyzing radiographs in patients of the comparison group in 19 (76%) teeth there was a complete restoration of the bone structure in the periapical region and in 5 (20%) teeth there was a partial restoration of bone tissue from the teeth. In 1 (4%) tooth, foci of bone tissue destruction were determined on radiographs, the size of which remained unchanged. Thus, the use of a sound method of activating a 3% sodium hypochlorite solution in teeth with a complex root canal anatomy at the stage of finishing irrigation makes it possible to effectively clean the root canal from the lubricated layer, which contributes to high-quality root canal obturation and a significant reduction in immediate and long-term complications after treatment.

Irrigation with reduced sodium hypochlorite solution concentration using laser-induced cavitation is effective and safe in rat intraradicular biofilm model.

This study aimed to investigate the optimal sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl) concentration to effectively remove the root canal biofilm without stimulating periradicular inflammation using coronal laser-activated irrigation (CLAI). To compare the efficacy of different NaOCl concentrations combined with CLAI in removing the biofilm, an in vivo intraradicular biofilm rat model was used. Root canals were irrigated using an Er:YAG laser with either 5% or 0.5% NaOCl. Biofilm removal efficacy of CLAI was compared to that of conventional needle irrigation using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Histological observation of CLAI-associated periradicular inflammation was also conducted. In both the 5% and 0.5% CLAI groups, SEM observation showed the opening of the dentin tubules and biofilm removal. qPCR analysis indicated that the residual bacteria counts after cleaning were significantly lower in the 5% and 0.5% CLAI groups than in the conventional needle irrigation and positive control groups (Tukey test, p < 0.05), and no significant difference was observed between the 5% and 0.5% CLAI groups (p > 0.05). Periapical inflammation in the 5% CLAI group revealed the most severe, including significant neutrophilic and lymphocytic infiltration with abscess formation, while only mild vasodilation was observed in the 0.5% CLAI group. CLAI can remove the biofilm independently of chemical action, which avoids the risks associated with high NaOCl concentrations. Therefore, this root canal irrigation technique ensures safety and effectiveness, promising to contribute to new treatment strategies intended to remove intraradicular biofilm.

The nexus between agricultural land use, urbanization, and greenhouse gas emissions: Novel implications from different stages of income levels

The current study establishes theoretical and empirical linkages among urbanization, economic growth, land use, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The prime objective of this article is to draw novel conclusions and policies for the different income levels of countries regarding the urbanization and agriculture sector land on environmental pollution. Employing panel data of 50 countries for the period 1990 to 2019, this study uses the lasso regression and non-parametric regression panel data methods to investigate the impacts of land use (arable, permanent pastures, and cropland), urbanization growth, and economic progress on the pollution levels. After estimating a Lasso regression to find the best auto-regressive predictive specification, we used an auto-regressive partially linear regression where each of the drivers’ effects was modelled non-parametrically. The elasticity effect of the urban population on emissions is significantly positive and sizable. In addition, the effect distribution shows a non-negligible share of observations with an elasticity higher than one. Urban population growth is a serious threat to climate change, as it seems to increase sharply CO2 emissions (although with an elasticity pace smaller than one). The elasticity effect of GDP is significantly negative, which implies that the scale of production, by triggering efficiency, can have a positive effect on emissions reduction. The results argue that agglomeration negative effects put in place by larger urban population can partly explain this finding. Overall, the study argues that urbanization growth and economic activities lead to GHG emissions, whereas the study also discusses novel implications and the role of agricultural land use apropos Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The empirical findings allow us to draw novel conclusions and guidelines in line with SDGs. The agricultural reforms might include irrigation and farming techniques such as spin farming, solar tube wells, tunnel farming, technology use agreements, plant double helix, etc.

Effect of deficit irrigation under furrow irrigation techniques on garlic (Allium sativum L.) productivity at the central highland of Ethiopia

Garlic is one of the widely grown vegetables in irrigation but poor irrigation management causes depressed agronomic practices and results in low productivity. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of deficit irrigation on soil moisture, yield, and water use efficiency (WUE) of garlic (Allium sativum L.) local cultivars under furrow irrigation techniques. It was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications with four irrigation levels (100, 85, 70, and 55% ETc) and three furrow techniques namely: Alternative (AFI), Fixed (FFI) and Conventional (CFI). An irrigation regime was determined based on both ETc and soil moisture methods. All collected data were subjected to ANOVA by SAS statistical software. The result showed that yield and WUE were highly significantly (p < 0.01) affected by deficit levels and furrow techniques. The maximum yield of 8.9 t/ha was obtained with the application of 100% ETc under CFI, while the maximum CWUE of 4.1 kg/m3 with the application of 55% ETc under AFI. The application of 85% ETc under AFI resulted in optimum yield and CWUE. Correlation analysis revealed that strong positive association between garlic yield and its yield components. In areas where there is abundant water, garlic could be irrigated with a seasonal irrigation depth of 592 mm (100% ETc) under CFI techniques. The application of 85% ETc under AFI techniques saves irrigation water with insignificant yield reduction and this saved water could possibly produce an extra yield of 7.1 t/ha, resulting in a more economical return with a marginal rate of return (MRR) of 1463%. Therefore, it is the best choice under the conditions of the study area and other similar areas.

Sub-surface drip irrigation reduced N2O emissions via inhibiting denitrification pathways in northern China

Water-saving irrigation has become an important method for alleviating water scarcity in semi-arid regions. However, the lack of knowledge about the effects of different water-saving irrigation techniques on soil nitrogen conversion limits the understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved in soil N2O emissions. To determine the effects of different irrigation methods on N2O emissions, we conducted a two-season experiment under four different irrigation methods (DI, surface drip irrigation; SDI, sub-surface drip irrigation; PRI, partial rootzone irrigation; FP, flood irrigation). Also, we studied the dynamics of nitrifier and denitrifier community structures and compositions and their associations and effects on N2O emissions. The results showed that seasonal N2O emissions were affected by irrigation practices and significantly correlated with the amount of irrigation and soil moisture. Drip irrigation significantly reduced N2O emissions, with 38–45 % (DI), 51–59 % (SDI), and 64–68 % (PRI) decreases compared to FP treatment. Under SDI, the copy numbers of ammonia-oxidizing archaea amoA significantly decreased and nirK displayed an increase compared to FP. The abundance of unclassified_Proteobacteria dominant among nirK-type denitrifiers under FP was observed to be strongly and positively correlated with N2O emissions, and the dominant bacteria shifted to Bosea under drip irrigation. Irrigation practices had a strong effect on the Shannon and ACE indexes of five key genes. PRI showed a similar effect under SDI treatment on nitrifier and denitrifier community structures. Furthermore, PRI, with only a 38 % reduction of irrigation water consumption, produced a 4.4–11.3 % lower yield than SDI. Therefore, SDI treatment can inhibit the denitrification process led by nirS-type denitrifiers and reduce the abundance of the dominant genus of nirK and promote nosZ abundance, thus decreasing N2O emissions. Our findings indicate that (i) drip irrigation increased ammonia-oxidizing bacteria amoA abundance and diversity but decreased nirS abundance, which led to N2O mitigation and (ii) SDI might be the best method for maintaining high crop yield with lower N2O emissions in intensively farmed fields.

Security and Privacy in Smart Farming: Challenges and Opportunities

Agriculture is basic source of livelihood of people in india. It plays major role in economy of country. But now a days due to migration of people from rural to urban there is hindrance in agriculture.Monitoring the environmental factor is not the complete solution to increase the yield of crops.There are number of factors that decrease the productivity to a great extent. Hence automation must be implemented in agriculture to overcome these problems.An automation Irrigation system there by saving time ,money and power of farmer.The traditional farm land irrigation techniques require manual intervention.With the automated technology of irrigation,the human intervention can be minimized.Continuous sensing and monitoring of crops by convergence of sensors with Internet Of Things(IOT) and making farmers aware about crops growth,harvest time periodically and in turn making high productivity of crops and also ensuring correct delivery of products to end,consumers at right place and right time. So to overcome this problem we go for smart agriculture technique using IOT.This project includes sensors such as temperature,humidity,soil moisture for collection of field data and processed.These sensors are combined with well established web technology in the form of wireless sensor networks to remotely control and monitor data from the sensors.

Economic, environmental, and social sustainability of Alternate Wetting and Drying irrigation for rice in northern Italy

Italy is Europe's leading rice producer, with over half of total production almost totally concentrated in the north-western part of the Padana plain. In this area, rice irrigation has traditionally been carried out by wet seeding and continuous flooding. The replacement of this technique with the dry seeding and delayed flooding in the last 15 years brought economic benefits to farmers but also strong impacts to the water resource system of the area, characterized by a strong interaction between irrigation and shallow aquifer levels. Wet seeding and Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) could be seen as an alternative irrigation strategy; however, its environmental, economic and social sustainability must be investigated before supporting the dissemination of this “water-saving” irrigation technique over the territory in cooperation with decision-makers and water resource managers. In this paper, the results of an experimental activity carried out in a platform established in the main Italian rice district to compare three irrigation strategies (wet seeding and traditional flooding—WFL, dry seeding and delayed flooding from around the 3-leaf stage—DFL, wet seeding and alternated wetting and drying from the tillering stage—AWD) and data further provided by the farm holder (agronomic inputs and economic costs for the three options) were used to assess their economic and environmental sustainability through an assessment procedure based on quantitative indicators. Interviews with rice growers in the area were used to identify barriers to the adoption of AWD and subsequently propose ways to overcome them. AWD proved to be economically viable and to reduce the irrigation need in the peak month (June) without significantly affecting rice yield or quality (cadmium and arsenic content in rice grain). Additionally, it guarantees the recharging of the phreatic aquifer in the first period of the irrigation season, while reducing the methane (CH4) emissions, facing another significant environmental challenge of rice cultivation. Rice growers in the region stated their willingness to adopt AWD, although they would need technical, technological and financial support. The assessment procedure adopted in this paper proved to be effective for comparing rice irrigation techniques and is available for further studies.

Application of the OECT-Based In Vivo Biosensor Bioristor in Fruit Tree Monitoring to Improve Agricultural Sustainability

Water scarcity is a major concern in agriculture worldwide. Fruit trees are severely affected by water deprivation in terms of growth, fruit yield, and quality. Plant monitoring combined with efficient irrigation is pivotal to achieve good quality standards and improve agricultural sustainability. This study reports the use of in vivo sensing technology to monitor fruit tree species continuously, in real time and in vivo, through an Organic Electrochemical Transistor (OECT)-based biosensor called Bioristor. The sensor was applied to grapevines, apples, and kiwis, revealing its capability to trace the plant water status for the whole productive cycle. A correlation between the sensor response index (R) and environmental parameters such as air humidity and temperature were recorded for fruit species. The day/night oscillation of the ionic content in the transpiration stream varies during plant growth and fruit maturation and during severe drought stress. Bioristor promptly detected the occurrence of drought stress. The gate current (Igs) trend supports the reduction in the saturation of the system due to the lower water availability. The use of Bioristor-acquired indices can be used to improve precision irrigation techniques according to the real plant needs.