Technical Efficiency Index Research Articles

FARO-44 RICE PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY OF FADAMA III ADDITIONAL FINANCE II BENEFICIARIES IN TARABA STATE,

The study analysed the faro-44 rice production efficiency of fadama III additional finance II beneficiaries in Taraba State, Nigeria. A Multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 250 respondents. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings of the study revealed that The result of maximum likelihood estimates of the stochastic frontier production Function of dry season faro-44 rice farmers reveal that farm size (P<0.01), fertilizer (P<0.05), quantity of seed (kg) (P<0.01), herbicide (liter) (P<0.05), were positive and significant increasing output of the farmers. Similarly, the age (P<0.01) level of education (P<0.01), farming experience (P<0.05) and household size (P<0.05 were the socio-economic characteristics influencing the increase in technical efficiency of the farmers. Furthermore, the technical efficiency of the farmers is glaringly below 1, an indication that the farmers are operating below their production efficiency frontier. A reasonable proportion (41.20%) of the respondents were within 0.60-0.69 technical efficiency index range with highest value of 0.91 for the most efficient farmers and minimum of 0.50 for the least efficient or worst farmer. Consequently, farmers obtained mean technical efficiency of 0.76 which will improve their technical efficiency by 24%. The result further revealed that, the farmers attained an estimated mean allocative efficiency of 0.88. It was concluded that most of the farmers were unable to obtain technical efficiency level above 76% and farmers were 88% allocative efficient. The study recommended that farmers level of technical efficiency can be increased by 27% by building farmers’ capacity through training, workshops and seminars on postharvest loss management, processing techniques, farm record keeping in order to avoid wastages and sustain efficiency.

RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY IN IMPROVE HYBRID TOMATO PRODUCTION IN AKWA IBOM STATE, SOUTHERN REGION OF NIGERIA

The study estimates the technical efficiency of tomato farmers in Akwa Ibom State in the Southern Region of Nigeria. One hundred and twenty tomato farmers were randomly selected using multistage sampling technique. Descriptive statistics and maximum likelihood estimation of the stochastic Cobb- Douglas production function were used to analyze the collected data. The results of socioeconomic characteristics showed that male farmers dominated tomato cultivation in the region. The majority of farmers were relatively young, educated, and had moderate household size but low social capital accumulation. The empirical results identified seeds, manure, fertilizer, farm size, hired labour and family labour as significant inputs in tomato production. The study found decreasing return to scale in tomato production in the region. An average technical efficiency index of 0.797 was estimated, which corresponds to an efficiency gap of approximately 20.30%. Determinants of technical efficiency were: farming experience, socialization, education, training, farm income, household size and non-farm income. To increase the technical efficiency of tomato farmers, it is recommended that they should be encouraged to join existing cooperatives to obtain production information that would improve their technical efficiency; and providing formal education, especially in rural areas, would encourage tomato farmers to update their knowledge and acquire more skills necessary for efficient management of farm resources.

Economic efficiency of small-scale wheat production in Jigawa state, Nigeria

Africa’s most populous country has failed to grow more food for its fast-rising population. With 420,000 metric tons of wheat produced in Nigeria in 2020, the country is still far from bridging its 4.6 million metric tons annual wheat gap. Increasing wheat production is a challenge for the nation to fulfill the food requirements of its growing population. So far literature has shown a rise in research on wheat in different parts of Nigeria, with a paucity of information on the economic efficiency of wheat production in the study area, and the country in general. To bridge these knowledge and empirical gaps, this research investigates the economic efficiency of wheat production in Jigawa State of Nigeria using information gathered from a survey elicited by a well-structured questionnaire coupled with an interview schedule from 341 active wheat farmers selected through a multi-stage sampling technique. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data collected. Empirically, despite the wheat enterprise being profitable in the study area, farmers didn’t achieve the targeted goals of output maximization, cost minimization, and profit maximization as evident respectively by the technical, cost, and economic efficiency indexes. However, these goals were challenged by induced human risks viz. gender discrimination that affects women’s access to productive resources, poor labor productivity due to diminishing marginal returns associated with old age, capital consumption triggered by increased income, poor prioritization of wheat enterprise as a business, and vulnerable household size. Furthermore, the identified constraints mediating the links that affected the economic efficiency of wheat farmers were price/marketing, technological, managerial, and infrastructural risks. Therefore, for long-run sustainable wheat production, the responsibility lies on policymakers to concentrate more on marketing and technological risks challenging wheat production in the study area as empirically established by this research.

Parametric study of organic Rankine working fluids via Bayesian optimization of a preference learning ranking for a waste heat recovery system applied to a case study marine engine

This work presents an analysis of environmentally friendly organic Rankine cycle (ORC) fluids and their application in a marine waste heat recovery system (WHRS) to reduce the utilization of fuel, thus reducing the emission of harmful pollutants. The proposed WHRS consists of four subsystems: steam Rankine, organic Rankine, Seebeck effect heat to electricity conversion and desalination. Among the 80 ORC working fluids analyzed, R1233zd(E), Novec 649 and SES36 exhibit the best overall performance in terms of power output, efficiency, safety and environmental impact. The results indicate that the implementation of innovative energy efficiency systems that comply with MEPC.1-Circ.896, such as this proposal, can reduce the IMO technical energy efficiency index (EEXI) up to 7.26 % and the operational carbon intensity indicator (CII) up to 14.24 %.

Enhancement of Maritime Sector Decarbonization through the Integration of Fishing Vessels into IMO Energy Efficiency Measures

The escalating impact of anthropogenic activities on global climate patterns necessitates urgent measures to reduce emissions, with the maritime industry playing a pivotal role. This article aims to examine the adoption of International Maritime Organization energy efficiency measures for the often-overlooked fishing vessels and their contribution to the overall maritime decarbonization efforts. The article analyzes the attained technical efficiency indices of a case study large-scale fishing vessel and compares them with those of two cargo ships where IMO measures already apply. To support the proposal, a comprehensive analysis of the energy efficiency indices of eight large purse seine fishing vessels is also presented. The results show that large-scale fishing vessels of 400 GT and above could be subject to the IMO energy efficiency measures. The operational challenges, unique to the fishing sector, suggest that sector-specific considerations may be required to integrate the fishing fleet into the already existing IMO energy efficiency guidelines. Looking ahead, this article explores the benefits of aligning Regulation (EU) 2023/957 and IMO guidelines, as well as applying the IMO Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) in assessing the operational environmental impact of fishing operations, emphasizing the importance of including these vessels in the current regulatory frameworks to promote decarbonization.

TECHNICAL, ALLOCATIVE AND ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF IRRIGATED UPLAND TOMATO (Lycopersicon esculentum) PRODUCTION, IN GOMBE STATE, NIGERIA

The study examined the technical, allocative and economic efficiency of irrigated upland tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) production, in Gombe State, Nigeria. Multi-stage random sampling procedure was used to select 459 respondents. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The result revealed that, the technical efficiency of the farmer is below 1, implying that the farmers in dry season tomato in Gombe State are operating below their production efficiency frontier with a reasonable proportion of 32.97% of the respondents having technical efficiency index within the range interval of 0.41 - 0.60 with the maximum value of 0.99 for the most efficient farmers and minimum or less value of 0.10 for the least or worst farmers. The result of allocative efficiency revealed that, the mean was 0.73 for the dry season tomato farming, meaning that the farmers were 73% allocatively efficient in the production of tomato. The finding also showed a mean economic efficiency level of 0.73, the less efficiency farmers had 0.31 while the maximum and high-level farmers had 0.95. The result further revealed that, fertilizer (r= 0.2822), pesticides (r= 0.4083) and labour (manday) (r= 0.7632) were over utilized while seed/seedling (r= 1.2517) and herbicide (r= 1.3054) were under-utilized. The elasticity for all farms categories indicates that the respondents allocated their resources in a rational stage of production (Stage II) where diminishing return to scale existed. It is concluded that respondents are operating below their production efficiency and the elasticity for all farms categories indicates that the respondents allocated their resources in a rational stage of production (Stage II) where diminishing return to scale existed while fertilizer, labour and pesticide were over utilized. The study recommended that, farmers should manage their farm resources wisely this can be achieved by building their capacity on farm resource management, efforts should also be made to improve access to adequate water for irrigation purposes and insecurity issues can be overcome by collective efforts of the community, government, NGO and capable individuals.

Carbon emission efficiency of land use in urban agglomerations of Yangtze River Economic Belt, China: Based on three-stage SBM-DEA model

Exploring regional differences in land use carbon emission efficiency (LUCE) and the path of collaborative emission reduction in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) are of immense importance to achieve the sustainable regional development. Firstly, based on the estimation method of land use carbon emissions, this paper scientifically calculates the carbon emission of land use of the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration (YRD), the middle reaches of the Yangtze River urban agglomeration (MRYR), and the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration (CC) from 2010 to 2021 in the YREB. And the carbon emission of land use of each city in urban agglomerations was obtained, which was regarded as the unexpected output in the efficiency evaluation index system. Secondly, the three-stage SBM-DEA model was used to reveal the LUCE and its spatiotemporal characteristics in different regions from a static perspective. The empirical results of the second stage SFA showed that the level of economic development, urbanization rate, industrial structure, non-agricultural conversion rate of agricultural land, the level of scientific and technological innovation and government intervention had significant effects on LUCE. By comparing the efficiency values and their decompositions in the first and third stage of various urban agglomerations, it was found that after eliminating environmental and random factors, the average ranking of comprehensive technical efficiency (TE) of land use carbon emission changed from YRD > MRYR > CC to YRD > CC > MRYR due to the cross influence of pure technical efficiency (PTE) and scale efficiency (SE). Thirdly, Malmquist index model was used to analyze the change of total factor productivity index (TFPch) and its spatiotemporal pattern from a dynamic perspective. It was found that the TFPch, technological progress index (TC), pure technical efficiency index (PEC) and scale efficiency index (SEC) of land use carbon emission of the three major urban agglomerations all showed varying degrees of increase after adjustment. Finally, to further analyze the impact of technological progress, PTE and SE on LUCE, a regression model was constructed with LUCE of each city in urban agglomeration as the dependent variable, and TC, PEC and SEC as independent variables. It was concluded that technological progress was the main factor to promote the improvement of LUCE in the whole YREB. The trend of changes of LUCE in various urban agglomerations was closely related to its management level, technology level and factor structure adjustment. The above conclusions provide support for the coordinated emission reduction path of urban agglomerations in the YREB from the perspective of land use, which is conducive to actively and steadily promoting the realization of carbon peak and carbon neutrality goals.

Power Mechanism and Practical Path of Agricultural Insurance to Help Rural Revitalization

Abstract This paper firstly explores the power mechanism of agricultural insurance to help rural revitalization from three aspects of agriculture, farmers and rural three farmers, respectively, and constructs the rural revitalization development index system by combining the entropy power method. Then, the three-stage DEA model and the three-stage Malmquist index model are used to measure the efficiency of agricultural insurance boosting rural revitalization by combining the selected agricultural insurance boosting indicators. Finally, taking province A as an example, after descriptive statistical analysis, the method of this paper is combined with empirical analysis, and the practical path of agricultural insurance to help farmers is proposed from the three aspects of the insurance system, publicity as well and supply. The results show that after the optimization of agricultural insurance, the value of technical efficiency is distributed in [0.600, 0.738], the value of pure technical efficiency is distributed in [0.716, 0.826], and the value of scale efficiency is distributed in [0.738, 0.833] from 2010 to 2019. The mean value of the agricultural technical efficiency index in each city is 1.091, the mean value of the progress index is 1.033, and the mean value of total factor productivity is 1.029, which is an upward trending technology, and all of them have a growth rate of more than 5%. Based on this study, agricultural insurance can help improve the efficiency of rural revitalization.

Airport technical efficiency: Evidence of privatised airports in Latin America

Since the mid-1990s, the main airports in Latin America have been privatised. This is the result, on the one hand, of the liberalisation of the aviation industry in almost all the countries of the region, and on the other hand, of the application of an extensive and uninterrupted programme of air public policies, currently underway. Based on this, this paper first analyse how public policies have influenced the development of airports in Latin America, generating the privatisation of the most important in the region (in a context of structural reform still in progress). Second, it studies how the COVID-19 pandemic affected the technical efficiency of the privatised airports in the region. Therefore, in this paper, the measurement of technical efficiency is carried out (using only technical variables, that is, infrastructure and aeronautical or air traffic variables) on a representative set of Latin American privatised airports, both in the pre-pandemic period (2017–19) and in the severest pandemic period (2020). The methodology used to carry out the study is data envelopment analysis (DEA). The main results of the research reveal high, and in some cases ideal, technical efficiency indices in the pre-pandemic period, and not very severe drops in technical efficiency in the pandemic period.

Economic Sustainability of the Milk and Dairy Supply Chain: Evidence from Serbia

The sector of milk and dairy products in Serbia along the entire supply chain has been under significant challenges in recent years, especially in current crises. In this direction, this research looked at the supply chain of milk and dairy products by analyzing the primary production, the situation in the processing industry, and the international market’s competitiveness. Indicators of technical efficiency were used to analyze the situation on agricultural farms, while for the processing industry, the impact of various variables on profitability was evaluated using panel models. Furthermore, an examination of these products’ standings in the global market was conducted by assessing their revealed comparative advantages and integration index. The results of the research determined the level of technical efficiency of the producer, while the statistically significant influence of certain variables on profitability was determined within the processing industry. Additionally, the analysis showed modestly revealed comparative advantages in the international market but good integration with the international market. Finally, the sustainability of the milk and dairy products supply chain is highly questionable in crises, which will be a challenge for producers and policymakers.

Stochastic Frontier Analysis of Production, Socio-economic and Institutional Factors Affecting Technical Efficiency of Cowpea Production in Chuka Sub-county, Kenya

Cowpea is one of the most important vegetable that ranks third among pulses and top five leafy vegetables consumed in Sub Saharan Africa. In Kenya cowpea contributes to cheap supply of nutritious food, revenue and food security. Despite its importance, cowpea production levels are a fraction of the potential due to low technical efficiency of production which affects the revenue levels and food security of the smallholder farmers. This study aimed to determine the production, socio-economic and institutional factors affecting the level of technical efficiency among smallholder cowpea farmers in Chuka Sub County, Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya. Using semi structured questionnaire in a population of 12905 households and using multistage sampling technique from 389 households cross-sectional data on production factors, socioeconomic and institutional characteristics was collected. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics and stochastic frontier production function. The results indicated that production factors, socioeconomic and institutional characteristics significantly affected cowpea production. The mean technical efficiency index was 0.34. The stochastic frontier analysis revealed that production factor coefficients of labour (0.825), topdressing fertilizer (0.635), manure (0.325), agrochemicals (0.221) and land size (0.628) were all positive and statistically significant at 5% level. The inefficiency model revealed that the coefficients of socio-economic factors age (0.038), education (-0.156) and farming experience (-0.053), and the institutional factors, information sources/extension contact (-0.669) and access to digital financial services (1.527) were negative but statistically significant, except for age and access to digital service that were positive and significant. These variables were the determinants of technical efficiency in cowpea production. The results suggest that there is potential for cowpea farmers to increase production and net profits in the long run by efficient utilization of the existing mix of production inputs and technologies. Formulation of policies revolving around the significant variables, input supply, technology transfer and subsidies; extension services, information exchanges and market linkages are recommended to palliate technical inefficiency in cowpea production among farmers.

Health systems efficiency in China and ASEAN, 2015–2020: a DEA-Tobit and SFA analysis application

ObjectiveTo evaluate the health systems efficiency in China and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries from 2015 to 2020.DesignHealth efficiency analysis using data envelopment analysis (DEA) and stochastic frontier...

Comparison of Hospitals in Jakarta as Decision-Making Unit for Technical Efficiency and Cost Values: Application of DEA and SFA

The implementation of national health insurance in Indonesia in 2014 as an effort to provide universal health care was known asthe BPJS program. It was named after the responsible agency: Badan Penyelenggara Jaminan Sosial (Health Social Security Administrator). In its early years of implementation, it was indicated that it was not financially optimal because it made a significant financial loss. Therefore, this research was conducted to examine the efficiency level of several hospitals in Jakarta from a technical and cost perspective. The 2018 data was obtained from the Ministry of Health and BPJS. The survey covered 36 hospitals from various regions in Jakarta and was analyzed using Data Envelopment Analysis and Stochastic Frontier Analysis. DEA Solver LV 8 and Frontier 4.1 were the primary tools in this study. There were two significant results of this study. First, most hospitals in Jakarta were efficient in terms of technical efficiency score of DEA (0.73) and SFA (0.52), whereas cost efficiency was mediocre with a score of DEA (0.56) and SFA (0.50). Second, three indices (regional technical efficiency score, regional cost efficiency score, and ownership cost efficiency score) showed similar patterns for DEA and SFA efficiency scores except for the ownership technical efficiency index. It is recommended that the government should immediately improve the centralized national database for hospitals and decide strategic policy to arrange for cooperation between hospitals primarily by sharing their data on hospitals’ load and staff availability.

Spatiotemporal Evolution and Spatial Convergence Analysis of Total Factor Productivity of Citrus in China

In this study, the DEA–Malmquist index method was used to measure the total factor productivity of citrus in seven major mandarin-producing provinces and seven major tangerine-producing provinces in China from 2006 to 2020. Moran’s I index was used to test the spatial correlation of total factor productivity of mandarin and tangerine, and its σ convergence and β convergence characteristics were explored using coefficient of variation and spatial panel models. The results show that from the perspective of time series evolution, the growth rate of total factor productivity of mandarin and tangerine in China slowed down year by year after reaching the maximum value in 2008. Technological progress was the main factor affecting the total factor productivity of citrus. The total factor productivity growth of tangerine was more stable than that of mandarin, and the pure technical efficiency index and scale efficiency change index of mandarin and tangerine were not stable. From the perspective of regional differences, the total factor productivity of China’s main citrus-producing provinces all indicated positive growth, showing an increasing trend from east to west. The drivers of growth were mainly technological progress and scale efficiency. The regional differences in total factor productivity growth for mandarin were more obvious than for tangerine. The total factor productivity of mandarin and tangerine showed obvious spatial correlation characteristics; the positive spatial spillover effect was significant; and there were σ convergence, absolute β convergence, and conditional β convergence. Regional disparities in citrus industry development can be more objectively reflected by convergence analysis that takes spatial factors, economic and social factors, and other factors into account.

Pola Saluran Pemasaran Agroindustri Kopi Bubuk Di Desa Muara Madras Kecamatan Jangkat Kabupaten Merangin

<p><em>This study aims 1) To describe the marketing location of coffee powder in Muara Madras Village in Merangin Regency and outside Merangin Regency. 2) To find out the pattern of marketing channels for ground coffee agroindustry in Muara Madras Village, Jangkat District, Merangin Regency. 3) To find out the marketing efficiency channel for coffee powder in Muara Madras Village, Jangkat District, Merangin Regency. This research was conducted from 21 June 2021 to 02 July 2021 with primary and secondary data sources. The analytical method used in this research is descriptive qualitative and quantitative analysis with a sample of 3 agroindustry 19 traders. The results showed that 1) The distribution of marketing locations for ground coffee in Muara Madras Village from the total distribution of 70 percent of ground coffee marketing was in Merangin Regency, namely Bangko District and sales out of Merangin Regency, 2) Marketing of ground coffee in Muara Madras Village consisted of 3 marketing channel patterns, namely: (I) agroindustry - final consumers, (II) agroindustry - sub-district retailers - final consumers, (III) agroindustry - village retailers - final consumers. 3) Based on the marketing efficiency indicators with the marketing margin approach, the technical marketing efficiency index (IET), and the economic efficiency index (IEE) it has been explained that of the three marketing channel patterns, agro-industry I (agro-industry – end consumer) is more efficient in terms of the margin of the marketing pattern. I am more efficient because there is no price difference between agro-industry and end consumers and based on marketing efficiency, technical efficiency index (IET), and economic efficiency index (IEE) my marketing channel pattern is more efficient than other marketing channel patterns.</em></p><p><strong><em>Keyword</em></strong><em>s: </em><strong><em>Marketing Distribution, Marketing Channel Pattern, Marketing Efficiency, Ground Coffee</em></strong><strong></strong></p>

A comparative study of green growth efficiency in Yangtze River Economic Belt and Yellow River Basin between 2010 and 2020

The Yangtze River Economic Belt and the Yellow River Basin are important economic regions and ecological barriers in China. Promoting the development of the Yangtze River Economic Belt and promoting ecological protection and high-quality development in the Yellow River Basin are major regional strategies implemented by the Chinese government, and the green growth of the two regions is important for the high-quality sustainable development of the whole China. To investigate the regional differences in green growth efficiency of the same type of geographical units, this paper measures the green growth efficiency and decomposition indicators of the Yangtze River Economic Belt and the Yellow River Basin from 2010 to 2020 using a three-stage DEA model and the Malmquist index method and establishes a panel Tobit model to identify the influencing factors of green growth efficiency. The results show that: ①After using the three-stage DEA model to remove the influence of external environment and stochastic factors, the mean values of green growth efficiency of Yangtze River Economic Zone and Yellow River Basin from 2010 to 2020 are 0.996 and 1.089, respectively. The change of green growth efficiency of Yangtze River Economic Zone is slightly higher than that of Yellow River Basin. ②The Malmquist indexes of the Yangtze River Economic Belt and the Yellow River Basin have generally increased, with the Technological Progress Index, which characterizes technological innovation, being the main endogenous driver of green growth efficiency in the Yellow River Basin, while the technical efficiency index, which characterizes factor mix and management level, is more significant in the Yangtze River Economic Belt. ③The Tobit model regression results show that the factors influencing green growth efficiency are also different in the two regions. Among them, the urbanization rate has a significantly positive effect on the two regions, while the effects of environmental regulation and research intensity are not significant. External openness has a suppressive effect on green growth efficiency in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, while the level of financial development and human capital negatively affect green growth efficiency in the Yellow River Basin. Therefore, green development in the new era should pay attention to the differences between different regions, and make appropriate development policies according to the local conditions of the development status of different regions.

Evaluation of Sustainable Development Policy of Sichuan Citrus Industry in China Based on DEA–Malmquist Index and DID Model

The citrus industry is an important fruit industry, with the widest cultivation area and the most crucial economic status in southern China. Evaluating the sustainable development of citrus industry is the basis for accurately grasping the food safety situation and scientifically formulating industrial development policies. This research aims to evaluate the sustainable development policies of citrus industry in 20 citrus-growing cities and states in Sichuan province in China from two dimensions of efficiency and effect. To this end, this study develops a DEA–Malmquist index and DID model using city and state panel data from 2009–2020. The results have the following implications: (1) The low technical efficiency and technological progress index together cause the general inefficiency of citrus production in Sichuan cities and states, and the improper scale of inputs is the main reason for the low technical efficiency. (2) The implementation of sustainable development policies has increased citrus total factor productivity and widened the gap between cities and states in Sichuan. (3) Excessive production factors and financial inputs have hindered the sustainable development of the Sichuan citrus industry.

Research on the Impact of Digital Agriculture Development on Agricultural Green Total Factor Productivity

In this study, to discover how the growth of digital agriculture has impacted agricultural green total factor productivity (AGTFP), we take panel data from 2011 to 2019 for 30 Chinese provinces as the research object, measure the growth of AGTFP and digital agriculture development using the SBM-ML and entropy method, and use a fixed effect model to analyze the effects of digital agriculture development on AGTFP. The results demonstrate that (1) from the time-series characteristics, digital agriculture presented a steady growth state from 2011 to 2019; (2) during the study period, the technical efficiency index was slightly lower than the technological progress index in the AGTFP index, meaning that there is room for further development; (3) the relationship between the growth of digital agriculture and AGTFP presents an inverted U-shaped curve, with human capital playing a moderating role. Finally, corresponding countermeasures are proposed in four aspects: strengthening the construction of organizational mechanisms, building a standardized base for digital agriculture output, enhancing the traceability and certification of agricultural products, and improving social services in the agricultural industry.

Research on the Difference of the Total Factor Productivity of Wholesale and Retail Industry in Anhui Province Based on DEA-Malmquist Model

Based on DEA-Malmquist Index model, this paper takes the wholesale and retail industries over quota in Anhui province as the research object, the Total factor productivity of wholesale and retail industries in Anhui Province from 2011 to 2020 were measured and compared. The results showed that among the 18 sub-industries of wholesale and retail industries, the Total factor productivity Total factor productivity of 13 industries showed an increasing trend while that of 5 industries showed a decreasing trend. And the difference between the change index of technical efficiency and the Change Index of technical progress is the main reason for the increase and decrease of Total factor productivity. There are four main reasons for the rise in Total factor productivity and two main reasons for the fall in Total factor productivity. Based on this, it is proposed to perfect the market development mechanism of wholesale and retail trade, pay attention to the brand construction of wholesale and retail enterprises, and promote the common development of network retail and physical retail, the four measures to improve the quality of workers in the wholesale and retail sectors are aimed at making up for deficiencies in this area.

Environmental Efficiency Analysis of Basmati Rice Production in Punjab, Pakistan: Implications for Sustainable Agricultural Development

The intensive use of chemicals worked as a catalyst to shift the production frontier but the most critical factor of maintaining a clean environment was totally ignored. The present study attempts to estimate the environmental efficiency of rice production by employing the translog stochastic production frontier approach. The data are collected from five major Basmati rice growing districts (Gujranwala, Sheikupura, Sialkot, Hafizabad, and Jhang) of Punjab in 2006. Chemical weedicides and nitrogen are treated as environmentally detrimental inputs. The mean technical efficiency index is sufficiently high (89 percent) but the environmental efficiency index of chemical weedicides alone is 14 percent while the joint environmental efficiency index of chemical weedicides and nitrogen is 24 percent implying that joint environmental efficiency is higher than chemical weedicide alone. It indicates that substantial reduction (86 percent) in chemical weedicide use is possible with higher level of productivity. Moreover, it is likely to contribute a considerable decrease in environmental pollution which is expected to enhance the performance of agriculture labour. The reduction in chemical weedicides will save Rs 297 per acre and Rs 1307.3 million over all from the rice crop in Punjab, improving the profitability of rice growing farmers by the same proportion. Empirical analysis indicates that reduction in environmental pollution together with higher level of profitability in rice production is achievable. JEL classification: N5, O13 Keywords: Rice Production, Environmental Efficiency, Weedicide, Fertiliser (NPK), Stochastic Translog Frontier