Tear Staining Research Articles

A case of tear stain improvement in dog by a dog food

A case of tear stain improvement in dog by a dog food

Artificial rearing affects piglets pre-weaning behaviour, welfare and growth performance

One strategy adopted on farms to deal with managing large litters involves removing piglets from their mothers at seven days old to be reared in specialised accommodation with milk replacer. Effects on piglet behaviour, growth and some aspects of welfare were evaluated in this study by comparing 10 pairs of two litters (one sow-reared: SR, one artificially-reared: AR) selected at seven days-old at a similar weight. Piglet behaviour was recorded for 20 min following transfer of AR piglets to the artificial-rearing enclosure (D0) and for 20 min hourly between 09:00 h and 17:00 h (8 h) on D5 and D12. Hourly 5 min live observations were also undertaken. Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) was conducted on D14 to evaluate piglets’ emotional state. Survival and illness events were recorded until weaning. On D0, D1, D8 and D15 piglets were weighed and scored for tear staining, dirtiness of the face and severity of lesions on the snout, limbs, ear and tail. Survival and illness rates, as well as the rates of behaviours/min were analysed using GLMMs. Weights and QBA scores were analysed using GLM. Lesions, tear staining and dirtiness scores were averaged per litter and analysed using GLM. When AR piglets were transferred to the artificial-rearing enclosure, their behaviour was not different to SR piglets. Over the two observation days, AR piglets performed more belly-nosing (F1,76.53 = 42.25; P < 0.001), nursing-related displacements (F1,79 = 19.32, P < 0.001), visits to the milk cup (compared to nursing bouts; F1,73.8 = 38.42, P < 0.001), and oral manipulation of littermates’ ears (F1,91.95 = 12.79, P < 0.001) and tails (F1,58.54 = 15.63, P < 0.001) than SR piglets. However, SR piglets played alone (F1,88.99 = 8.29, P < 0.005) and explored their environment (F1,99.42 = 4.52, P < 0.05) more frequently than AR piglets. The QBA scores indicated a lower emotional state in AR piglets (t25.1=-3.25, P < 0.05). Survival rate and overall illness rate of piglets were similar between the treatments. AR piglets experienced a growth check following their transfer to the artificial-rearing enclosure and remained lighter than SR piglets through to weaning (6.53 ± 0.139 kg vs. 7.97 ± 0.168 kg, t256 = 9.79, P < 0.001). Overall, snout lesion scores were not different between the treatments, but AR piglets had lower limb (F1,10.1 = 5.89, P < 0.05) and ear (F1,14.5 = 24.89, P < 0.001) lesion scores and higher tail lesion scores (F1,34.5 = 15.54, P < 0.001). AR piglets were dirtier (F1,17.4 = 23.38, P < 0.001) but had lower tear staining scores (F1,19.1 = 68.40, P < 0.001) than SR piglets. In conclusion, artificial rearing impaired piglets’ behaviour, welfare and growth.

Grass silage for growing-finishing pigs in addition to straw bedding: Effects on behaviour and gastric health

In organic and other enriched housing systems, straw is commonly used as enrichment material for pigs. Its positive effects on health and behavioural welfare are well known. However, potential additional impacts of roughages (other than straw) have rarely been investigated. On six organic farms, we therefore investigated how providing grass silage affects behaviour, gastric health and performance of growing-finishing pigs. Per farm, two to four pens were included in the experiment, with group sizes ranging from five to 26 pigs (total n = 368), and stocking density ranging from 1.65 to 3.50 m2 per pig during finishing. Groups were provided with either grass silage (SIL) or straw (CON) in a rack. Long-stack straw was used as bedding material in all pens. Skin and tail lesions and tear staining were assessed four times throughout the fattening period, and behavioural observations were conducted three times. After slaughtering, pathological damages in the gastric mucosa were scored (score 0–6). Slaughter weight, lean meat proportion and proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in body fat were obtained. Data were analysed using linear mixed effect models and parametric bootstrap. Providing grass silage did not alter pen-mate directed manipulations (P > 0.1). Prevalence of tail lesions was too low to confirm numerical differences statistically (0.2% of all assessments in SIL vs 2.6% in CON). Pigs with access to grass silage were occupied longer with substrate (silage or straw) than CON pigs (P = 0.01). The prevalence of slight to severe damages in the gastric mucosa was not affected by treatment (score 0 vs. 1–6; P > 0.1). However, among those pigs that had damages at all, severe damages including gastric ulcers were less frequent in pigs provided with grass silage (score 1–4 vs. 5–6; P = 0.03). The overall prevalence of gastric ulcers (score 6) was 0.7% of all pigs in SIL and 6.1% in CON groups. No impact of grass silage provision was found for slaughter weight, lean meat proportion and body fat quality parameters. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that grass silage is an appropriate feed and enrichment material to stimulate species-specific foraging behaviour and to reduce the development of gastric ulcers.

High species diversity in Colletotrichum associated with citrus diseases in Europe.

Species of Colletotrichum are considered important plant pathogens, saprobes, and endophytes on a wide range of plant hosts. Several species are well-known on citrus, either as agents of pre- or post-harvest infections, such as anthracnose, postbloom fruit drop, tear stain and stem-end rot on fruit, or as wither-tip of twigs. In this study we explored the occurrence, diversity and pathogenicity of Colletotrichum spp. associated with Citrus and allied genera in European orchards, nurseries and gardens. Surveys were carried out during 2015 and 2016 in Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal and Spain. A total of 174 Colletotrichum strains were isolated from symptomatic leaves, fruits, petals and twigs. A multi-locus phylogeny was established based on seven genomic loci (ITS, GAPDH, ACT, CAL, CHS-1, HIS3 and TUB2), and the morphological characters of the isolates determined. Preliminary pathogenicity tests were performed on orange fruits with representative isolates. Colletotrichum strains were identified as members of three major species complexes. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides s.str. and two novel species (C. helleniense and C. hystricis) were identified in the C. gloeosporioides species complex. Colletotrichum karstii, C. novae-zelandiae and two novel species (C. catinaense and C. limonicola) in the C. boninense species complex, and C. acutatum s.str. was also isolated as member of C. acutatum species complex. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and C. karstii were the predominant species of Colletotrichum isolated. This study represents the first report of C. acutatum on citrus in Europe, and the first detection of C. novae-zelandiae from outside New Zealand. Pathogenicity tests revealed C. gloeosporioides s.str. to be the most virulent species on fruits. The present study improves our understanding of species associated with several disease symptoms on citrus fruits and plants, and provides useful information for effective disease management.

Flat Feline Faces: Is Brachycephaly Associated with Respiratory Abnormalities in the Domestic Cat (Felis catus)?

There has been little research into brachycephalism and associated disorders in cats. A questionnaire aimed at cat owners was used to determine the relationship between feline facial conformation and owner-reported cat management requirements and respiratory abnormalities. Owner-submitted photographs of cats were used to develop novel measures of skull conformation. One thousand valid questionnaires were received. Within these there were 373 valid photographs that allowed measurement of muzzle ratio (M%) and 494 that allowed nose position ratio (NP%). The data included 239 cats for which both measurements were available. Owners reported lifestyle factors (e.g. feeding type, grooming routine, activity level), physical characteristics (e.g. hair length) and other health characteristics of their cat (e.g. tear staining, body condition score). A composite respiratory score (RS) was calculated for each cat using their owner’s assessment of respiratory noise whilst their cat was asleep and then breathing difficulty following activity. Multivariate analyses were carried out using linear models to explore the relationship between RS and facial conformation, and lifestyle risk factors. The results showed that reductions in NP% and M% were significantly associated with RS (P < 0.001 and P = 0.026, respectively) and that the relationship was significantly negatively correlated (r = -0.56, P < 0.001 for both). Respiratory score was also significantly associated with increased presence of tear staining (P < 0.001) and a sedentary lifestyle (P = 0.01). This study improves current knowledge concerning cats with breeding-related alterations in skull confirmation and indicates that brachycephalism may have negative respiratory implications for cat health and welfare, as has been previously shown in dogs.

Tear staining in pigs: a potential tool for welfare assessment on commercial farms

Tear staining or chromodacryorrhea refers to a dark stain below the inner corner of the eye, caused by porphyrin-pigmented secretion from the Harderian gland. It has been shown to be a consistent indicator of stress in rats and to correlate with social stress and a barren environment in pigs. The current study was, to our knowledge, the first to test it on commercial pig farms as a potential welfare indicator. The study was carried out on three commercial farms in Finland, in connection to a larger study on the effects of different types of manipulable objects on tail and ear biting and other behavioural parameters. Farm A was a fattening farm, on which 768 growing-finishing pigs were studied in 73 pens. Farm B had a fattening unit, in which 656 growing-finishing pigs were studied in 44 pens, and a farrowing unit, in which 29 sows and their litters totalling 303 piglets were studied in 29 pens. Farm C was a piglet-producing farm, on which 167 breeder gilts were studied in 24 pens. Data collection included individual-level scoring of tear staining; scoring of tail and ear damage in the growing-finishing pigs and breeder gilts; a novel object test for the piglets; and a novel person test for the growing-finishing pigs on Farm B and the breeder gilts on Farm C. On Farm A, tear staining was found to correlate with tail damage scores (n=768, rs=0.14, P<0.001) and ear damage scores (n=768, rs=0.16, P<0.001). In the growing-finishing pigs on Farm B, tear staining of the left eye correlated with tail damage (n=656, rs=0.12, P<0.01) and that of the right eye correlated with ear damage (n=656, rs=0.10, P<0.01). On Farm A, tear-staining sores were lower in the treatment with three different types of manipulable objects as compared with controls (mean scores 3.3 and 3.9, respectively, n=31, Fs29=4.2, P<0.05). In the suckling piglets on Farm B, tear staining correlated with the latency to approach a novel object (n=29, rp=0.41, P<0.05). Although correlations with tail and ear damage were low, it was concluded that tear staining has promising potential as a new, additional welfare indicator for commercial pig farming. Further research is needed on the mechanisms of tear staining.

Association between dry eye and inflammatory response mediated by CCR5 and CXCR3 and their ligands

Background Sustained abnormal tear secretion in dry eye patients may lead to ocular surface and lacrimal glands in the state of long-term inflammatory cell infiltration. Lacrimal gland suffers immune attack by lymphoproliferative, and inflammation interferes normal gland secretion, in which chemokines and their receptors on lymphocytes play a key role. Objective This study was to investigate the inflammation mechanism of delayed allergy induced by Th1 cell in the development of dry eye. Methods Sixty eyes of 30 patients with dry eye and matched 30 healthy volunteers were enrolled in Affiliated First Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University from June to December in 2012. SchirmerⅠtest (SⅠt), break up time (BUT) of tear and corneal fluorescence stain (FLS) were performed on the subjects, and conjunctiva epithelial cells were obtained using cytological method of conjunctiva imprinting. Positive cell rates of CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) and CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3) were detected by flow cytology, and the relative expression levels of regulated upon activation of normal T cells expressed and secreted (RANTES), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α and MIP-1β, monokine induced by interferon-γ (IFN-γ) (MIG), interferon-γ inducible protein 10 (IP10) and interferon-inducible T-cell α chemoattractant (I-TAC) mRNA were quantitatively assayed by real-time PCR. Differences of the positive rates of CCR5, CXCR3 and lignds were compared between dry eye group and normal control group. Relationship between the positive rates of CCR5, CXCR3 and BUT, SⅠt, FLS scores was analyzed. Results The values of BUT, SⅠt were (2.90±1.37) seconds and (4.00±2.49) mm/5 minutes in the dry eye group, which were significantly lower than (8.56±4.69) seconds and (11.31±5.23) mm/5 minutes in the normal control group (t=3.172, 2.186, both at P 0.05). The positive correlations were seen between the masculine rate of CCR5 with the relative expression of RANTES or MIP-1α mRNA (r=0.473, 0.285, both at P 0.05). In addition, the masculine rate of CXCR3 was positive correlated with the expressions of MIG and IP10 mRNA (r=0.553, 0.314, both at P 0.05). Conclusions Dry eye is probably along with the long-term infiltration of inflammatory cells. The delayed allergy induced by Th1 cells and the nature killed cells is probably the primary cause to xerophthalmia. CCR5, CXCR3 and their ligands might be the regulative targets in the inflammation mechanism of dry eye. Key words: Dry eye; Chemokines; Receptors, chemokines; Conjunctiva/metabolism; Flow cytometry; Real-time PCR; Humans

An initial investigation into the effects of isolation and enrichment on the welfare of laboratory pigs housed in the PigTurn®system, assessed using tear staining, behaviour, physiology and haematology

AbstractIn some parts of the world, the laboratory pig(Sus scrofa)is often housed in individual, sterile housing which may impose stress. Our objectives were to determine the effects of isolation and enrichment on pigs housed within the PigTurn® — a novel penning system with automated blood sampling — and to investigate tear staining as a novel welfare indicator. Twenty Yorkshire × Landrace weaner pigs were randomly assigned to one of four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial combination of enrichment (non-enriched [NE] or enriched [E]) and isolation (visually isolated [I] or able to see another pig [NI]). Pigs were catheterised and placed into the PigTurns® 48 h post recovery. Blood was collected automatically twice daily to determine white blood cell (WBC) differential counts and assayed for cortisol. Photographs of the eyes were taken daily and tear staining was quantified using a 0-5 scoring scale and Image-J software to measure stain area and perimeter. Behaviour was video recorded and scan sampled to determine time budgets. Data were analysed as an REML using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Enrichment tended to increase proportion of time standing and lying laterally and decrease plasma cortisol, tear-stain area and perimeter. There was a significant isolation by enrichment interaction. Enrichment given to pigs housed in isolation had no effect on plasma cortisol, but greatly reduced it in non-isolated pigs. Tear-staining area and perimeter were highest in the NE-I treatment compared to the other three treatments. Eosinophil count was highest in the E-NI treatment and lowest in the NE-I treatment. The results suggest that in the absence of enrichment, being able to see another animal but not interact may be frustrating. The combination of no enrichment and isolation maximally impacted tear staining and eosinophil numbers. However, appropriate enrichment coupled with proximity of another pig would appear to improve welfare.

First Report in Mali of Xanthomonas citri pv. mangiferaeindicae Causing Mango Bacterial Canker on Mangifera indica.

Bacterial canker (or black spot) of mango caused by Xanthomonas citri pv. mangiferaeindicae is an important disease in tropical and subtropical areas (1). X. citri pv. mangiferaeindicae can cause severe infection in a wide range of mango cultivars and induces raised, angular, black leaf lesions, sometimes with a chlorotic halo. Severe leaf infection may result in abscission. Fruit symptoms appear as small, water-soaked spots on the lenticels that later become star shaped, erumpent, and exude an infectious gum. Often, a "tear stain" infection pattern is observed on the fruit. Severe fruit infections cause premature drop. Twig cankers are potential sources of inoculum and weaken branch resistance to winds. Yield loss up to 85% has been reported at grove scale for susceptible cultivars (1). Suspected leaf lesions of bacterial canker were collected in July 2010 from mango trees in four, six, and three localities of the Koulikoro, Sikasso, and Bougouni provinces of Mali, respectively (i.e., the major mango-growing areas in this country). Nonpigmented Xanthomonas-like colonies were isolated on KC semiselective medium (3). Twenty-two strains from Mali were identified as X. citri pv. mangiferaeindicae based on IS1595-ligation-mediated PCR (4) and they produced fingerprints fully identical to that of strains isolated from Ghana and Burkina Faso. Five Malian strains (LH409, LH410, LH414, LH415-3, and LH418) were compared by multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) to the type strain of X. citri and the pathotype strain of several X. citri pathovars, including pvs. anacardii and mangiferaeindicae. This assay targeted the atpD, dnaK, efp, and gyrB genes, as described previously (2). Nucleotide sequences were 100% identical to those of the pathotype strain of X. citri pv. mangiferaeindicae whatever the gene assayed, but differed from any other assayed X. citri pathovar. Leaves of mango cv. Maison Rouge from the youngest vegetative flush were infiltrated (10 inoculation sites per leaf for three replicate leaves on different plants per bacterial strain) with the same five strains from Mali. Bacterial suspensions (~1 × 105 CFU/ml) were prepared in 10 mM Tris buffer (pH 7.2) from 16-h-old cultures on YPGA (7 g of yeast, 7 g of peptone, 7 g of glucose, and 18 g of agar/liter, pH 7.2). The negative control treatment consisted of three leaves infiltrated with sterile Tris buffer (10 sites per leaf). Plants were incubated in a growth chamber at 30 ± 1°C by day and 26 ± 1°C by night (12-h/12-h day/night cycle) at 80 ± 5% relative humidity. All leaves inoculated with the Malian strains showed typical symptoms of bacterial canker a week after inoculation. No lesions were recorded from the negative controls. One month after inoculation, mean X. citri pv. mangiferaeindicae population sizes ranging from 5 × 106 to 1 × 107 CFU/lesion were recovered from leaf lesions, typical of a compatible interaction (1). To our knowledge, this is the first report of the disease in Mali. Investigations from local growers suggest that the disease may have been present for some years in Mali but likely less than a decade. A high disease incidence and severity were observed, suggesting the suitability of environmental conditions in this region for the development of mango bacterial canker.

First Report in Ghana of Xanthomonas citri pv. mangiferaeindicae Causing Mango Bacterial Canker on Mangifera indica.

Bacterial canker of mango (or bacterial black spot), caused by Xanthomonas citri pv. mangiferaeindicae, is an economically important disease in tropical and subtropical producing areas (1). X. citri pv. mangiferaeindicae can cause severe infection in a wide range of mango cultivars and induces raised, angular, black leaf lesions, sometimes with a chlorotic halo. Several months after infection, leaf lesions dry and turn light brown or ash gray. Severe leaf infection may result in abscission. Fruit symptoms appear as small water-soaked spots on the lenticels. These spots later become star shaped, erumpent, and exude an infectious gum. Often, a "tear stain" infection pattern is observed on the fruit. Severe fruit infections will cause premature fruit drop. Twig cankers are potential sources of inoculum and weaken resistance of branches to wind damage. Leaf lesions with suspected bacterial canker were collected in January 2010 from mango trees cv. Keitt in several blocks at the Integrated Tamale Fruit Company, Ghana. Non-pigmented Xanthomonas-like bacterial colonies were isolated on Kasugamycin-Cephalexin semiselective agar medium (3). On the basis of IS1595-Ligation Mediated-PCR data, 16 strains from Ghana produced identical fingerprints and were identified as X. citri pv. mangiferaeindicae (4). The haplotype corresponding to the Ghanaian strains had not been previously reported. On the basis of multidimensional scaling (4), this haplotype clustered together with a group of strains from multiple origins and the analysis was not informative as an aid for tracing back the outbreak. Five Ghanaian strains (LH2-3, LH2-6, LH2-8, LH2-11, and LH2-15) were compared by multilocus sequence analysis to the type strain of X. citri and the pathotype strain of several X. citri pathovars, including pvs. anacardii and mangiferaeindicae. This assay targeted the atpD, dnaK, efp, and gyrB genes as described previously (2). Nucleotide sequences were 100% identical to those of the pathotype strain of X. citri pv. mangiferaeindicae whatever the gene assayed, but differed from any other assayed X. citri pathovar. Mango cv. Maison Rouge leaves from the youngest vegetative flush were infiltrated (10 inoculation sites per leaf, three replicate plants) using inoculum of each of the same five Ghanaian strains made from suspensions in Tris buffer containing ~1 × 105 CFU/ml. Negative control treatments consisted of leaves infiltrated with sterile Tris buffer. Typical symptoms of bacterial canker were observed for all assayed strains a week after inoculation. No lesions were recorded from the negative control. One month after inoculation, mean X. citri pv. mangiferaeindicae population sizes ranging from 4 × 107 to 1 × 108 CFU/lesion were recovered from leaf lesions, typical of a compatible interaction (1). High disease prevalence was observed in Ghana, indicating the suitability of environmental conditions in this region for the development of mango bacterial canker. The budwood for these blocks was imported from Burkina Faso in 2002 and symptoms were observed in these blocks shortly after establishment. To our knowledge, this is the first report of mango bacterial canker in Western Africa.

Pathogenic diversity of avocado and mango isolates ofColletotrichum gloeosporioidescausing anthracnose and pepper spot in Australia

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a major fungal pathogen of avocado and mango fruit in Australia and overseas. It causes anthracnose and stem-end rot in these crops but has also been identified as the causal pathogen of pepper spot of avocado and tear stain of mango. Research was initiated to determine the pathogenic diversity of pepper spot, with emphasis on avocado. Eighty C. gloeosporioides isolates obtained from avocado and mango fruit showing anthracnose and pepper spot symptoms were screened for pathogenicity, comparative aggressiveness and cross-infection potential by inoculating onto detached avocado and mango fruit, avocado leaf petioles and branches of young, grafted nursery trees, as well as avocado fruit and pedicels still attached to the tree. On detached, ripening avocado and mango fruit in the laboratory, it was found that pepper spot isolates were as capable as anthracnose isolates of causing anthracnose lesions. However, avocado isolates were significantly (P < 0.05) more aggressive than mango isolates on avocado fruit and mango isolates were significantly (P < 0.05) more aggressive than avocado isolates on mango fruit. In field inoculations, pepper spots were formed on developing avocado fruit and pedicels on the tree. Likewise, pepper spots developed on petioles and branches of nursery avocado trees, but not on their leaves. When all isolates were grouped according to symptom or host of origin, significant differences in lesion severity were demonstrated between isolates on avocado petioles in the glasshouse, with avocado pepper spot isolates being the most aggressive, followed by avocado anthracnose isolates then mango isolates from both anthracnose and pepper spot, respectively. On unripe avocado fruit in the field, the pattern was generally similar with the mango isolates being the least aggressive. There were more and less pathogenic strains present in the pathogen populations from both mango fruit and avocado fruit but neither were restricted to anthracnose or pepper spot groupings. Generally, a higher percentage of the most aggressive isolates was from avocado pepper spot. When isolates were grouped according to the orchard of origin, there were significant differences in aggressiveness to avocado both in the glasshouse and the field.

First Report in Myanmar of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. mangiferaeindicae Causing Mango Bacterial Canker on Mangifera indica.

Bacterial canker of mango (or bacterial black spot) caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. mangiferaeindicae (1) is a disease of economic importance in tropical and subtropical producing areas. X. axonopodis pv. mangiferaeindicae can cause severe infection in a wide range of mango cultivars and induces raised, angular, black leaf lesions, sometimes with a chlorotic halo. Several months after infection, leaf lesions dry and turn light brown or ash gray. Severe leaf infection may result in abscission. Fruit symptoms appear as small, water-soaked spots on the lenticels. These spots later become star shaped, erumpent, and exude an infectious gum. Often, a "tear stain" infection pattern is observed on the fruit. Severe fruit infections will cause premature fruit drop. Twig cankers are potential sources of inoculum and weaken branch resistance to winds (2). Suspected leaf lesions of bacterial canker were collected from mango nursery stock cv. Yin Kwe at a nursery in Yangon, Myanmar during March 2007. Nonpigmented Xanthomonas-like bacterial colonies were isolated on KC and NCTM3 semiselective agar media (4). Amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis was performed on three isolates from Myanmar and additional reference isolates of xanthomonads originating from Anacardiaceae (X. axonopodis pv. anacardii, X. axonopodis pv. mangiferaeindicae, X. axonopodis pv. spondiae, and X. translucens strains from pistachio) using SacI/MspI and four primer pairs (unlabeled MspI + 1 [A, C, T, or G] primers and 5'-labeled - SacI + C primer for the selective amplification step) (1). On the basis of multidimensional scaling (1), the Myanmar isolates were identified as X. axonopodis pv. mangiferaeindicae and were most closely related to group B strains that were isolated from mango in India and Eastern Asia (2). Mango cv. Maison Rouge leaves, inoculated as previously reported (1) with the Myanmar isolates, showed typical symptoms of bacterial canker 1 week after inoculation. One month after inoculation, mean X. axonopodis pv. mangiferaeindicae population sizes ranging from 5 × 106 to 8 × 106 CFU per lesion were recovered from leaf lesions, typical of a compatible interaction (1). Mangifera indica L. probably evolved in the area that includes northwestern Myanmar (3) and to our knowledge, this is the first confirmed detection of X. axonopodis pv. mangiferaeindicae from Myanmar. Further surveys and strain collection will be necessary to evaluate its geographic distribution and prevalence in the country.

First report of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides causing withertip on twigs and tear stain on fruit of citrus in Morocco

First report of <i>Colletotrichum gloeosporioides</i> causing withertip on twigs and tear stain on fruit of citrus in Morocco

Mango Anthracnose: Economic Impact and Current Options For Integrated Managaement.

Mango Anthracnose: Economic Impact and Current Options For Integrated Managaement.

Metronidazole in tear staining

Metronidazole in tear staining

Metronidazole in the treatment of tear staining in dogs.

Metronidazole in the treatment of tear staining in dogs.

Use of metronidazole in treating "tear staining" in the dog

Use of metronidazole in treating "tear staining" in the dog