Tea Seeds Research Articles

Comparative Assessment of the Fatty Acid Profiles of Crude Oils Extracted from Seeds of Selected Tea (<i> Camellia sinensis </i> L.) Cultivars

Tea seeds resulting from the cultivation of tea in many parts of the world, often regarded as waste, have been found to contain oil of exceptional quality that can be harnessed for use as an oleo-chemical or chemical intermediate. A comparative study was carried out to examine the free fatty acid profiles of crude oils chemically extracted by Soxhlet extraction from tea seeds collected from different cultivars of Kenyan tea. All the tea seeds of the studied tea cultivars yielded oil, though to different extents (p > 0.05) after the 8-hour extraction. The oils were golden yellow in color. The contents of oleic, linoleic and stearic acids in all the crude test oils have no significant difference (p > 0.05) from each other. However, statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in the linolenic and palmitic acids contents were evident. Based on the current findings, the test tea oils were predominantly constituted of unsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid being the major unsaturated fatty acid, other fatty acids being present in different but smaller proportions.

HPLC fractionation and pharmacological assessment of green tea seed saponins for antimicrobial, anti-angiogenic and hemolytic activities

Herbal medicinal products have proven to be safe, economical and effective alternatives to synthetic chemical pharmaceuticals. The green tea plant (Camellia sinensis) is of profound medicinal value due to the presence of potent bioactive constituents. The purpose of the present work is to investigate saponins from green tea seeds for potential use as anti-angiogenic, antimicrobial, and hemolytic agents. Green tea seed saponins were separated into six fractions by reverse phase HPLC. The presence of three aglycone chains in the saponins of each fraction was confirmed by acid hydrolysis. Anti-angiogenic activity was evaluated using saponin fractions at concentrations in the range of 2.5 ~ 25 μg/mL. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) using E. coli; S. mutans, a zoonotic Salmonella species and the fungal strain, A. niger. Saponin fractions were more potent against E. coli (gram negative bacteria) than against S. mutans (gram positive bacteria) and strongly inhibited six strains of zoonotic Salmonella. Green tea saponins also showed potent anti-angiogenic effects. All saponin fractions exhibited hemolytic activity. Our results confirm that green tea saponins have antimicrobial, anti-angiogenic, and hemolytic activities; indicating their potential as natural pharmaceutical products.

Astragalin inhibits autophagy-associated airway epithelial fibrosis

BackgroundFibrotic remodeling of airway and lung parenchymal compartments is attributed to pulmonary dysfunction with an involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in chronic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and asthma.MethodsThe in vitro study elucidated inhibitory effects of astragalin, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside from leaves of persimmon and green tea seeds, on oxidative stress-induced airway fibrosis. The in vivo study explored the demoting effects of astragalin on epithelial to mesenchymal transition in BALB/c mice sensitized with ovalbumin (OVA).ResultsThe exposure of 20 μM H2O2 for 72 h accelerated E-cadherin loss and vimentin induction in airway epithelial BEAS-2B cells, which was reversed by non-toxic astragalin at 1–20 μM. Astragalin allayed the airway tissue levels of ROS and vimentin enhanced by OVA challenge. Collagen type 1 production increased in H2O2–exposed epithelial cells and collagen fiber deposition was observed in OVA-challenged mouse airways. This study further investigated that the oxidative stress-triggered autophagic regulation was responsible for inducing airway fibrosis. H2O2 highly enhanced the expression induction of the autophagy-related beclin-1 and light chains 3A/B (LC3A/B) within 4 h and astragalin blocked such induction by H2O2. This compound deterred the ROS-promoted autophagosome formation in BEAS-2B cells. Consistently, in OVA-sensitized mice the expression of beclin-1 and LC3A/B was highly induced, and oral administration of astragalin suppressed the autophagosome formation with inhibiting the induction of these proteins in OVA-challenged airway subepithelium. Induction of autophagy by spermidine influenced the epithelial induction of E-cadherin and vimentin that was blocked by treating astragalin.ConclusionThese results demonstrate that astragalin can be effective in allaying ROS-promoted bronchial fibrosis through inhibiting autophagosome formation in airways.

Quantitation of the Total Catechin Content in Oils Extracted from Seeds of Selected Tea (&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Camellia sinensis&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; (L) O. Kuntze, Theaceae) Clones by RP-HPLC

Catechins (flavan-3-ols) are polyphenolic plant secondary metabolites that have been strongly associated with a wide variety of beneficial health effects in vitro, in vivo and clinically. This study reports findings on the content of catechins in tea seed oil (TSO) extracted by Soxhlet extraction from seeds of different clones of Kenyan tea. Extraction of catechins from the crude oils was achie- ved by sequential liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) using methanol and quantified by reverse phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC). Results obtained revealed that all the crude test oils contained catechins, with oils extracted from clones TRFK K-Purple and GW-Ejulu having the highest total catechin content of 9.8 ± 0.25 and 9.0 ± 0.83 (×10−3% flavonoids) respectively. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were evident in the total catechin contents of crude oils extracted from tea seeds with those extracted from corn, sunflower and soybean seeds. More- over, clonal variations were evident, as the total catechin contents of oils extracted from clones TRFK K-Purple and GW-Ejulu were statistically different (p < 0.05) from those extracted from clones TRFK 301/3, TRFK 301/4, TRFK 301/5, TRFK 306, TRFK 91/1 and TRFCA SFS 150. Thus, the cur- rent findings strongly suggest that oils from seeds of Kenyan tea cultivars can be a potential source of potent natural antioxidants. * Corresponding author.

Prospects, status and marketing of organic products in India-A Review

Organic farm production and trade has emerged as an important sector in the world in general and India in particulars, and is seen as an important strategy of facilitating sustainable development. The organic management area in India is increased by about 26 folds in last seven years. The top organically managed commodities produced are cotton, cereals, rice, pulses, fruits and vegetables, tea, oilseeds, coffees etc. The Madhya Pradesh stood first (2.86 million ha) in organic farming registered area (including wild area) in 2010–11, while Gujarat ranked eighth. The export market for organic food in India is valued at Rs. 1,866 crores includes basmati rice, pulses, tea, coffee, spices and oil seeds; and is growing at compound annual growth rate of 49% in last four years ending 2011–12. The volume of organic products export was 1,47,800 metric tonnes during 2011–12. This paper locates the prospects, status and marketing of organic farming and documents the Indian experience in organic production and trade.

Chemical composition, thermal stability and antioxidant properties of tea seed oils obtained by different extraction methods: Supercritical fluid extraction yields the best oil quality

A comparison study has been performed for tea seed oils (TSO) extracted from different methods and sources, which were oil from cold‐pressing of tea seeds [TSO(CP)], oil from supercritical fluid extraction of seeds [TSO(SCF)], and oil from supercritical fluid extraction of tea seed cake [TSCO(SCF)]. The chemical composition, thermal stability, antioxidant properties, and physicochemical properties of the oils were determined. The main ingredient in seed and cake was fat, fiber, total sugar, and considerable amounts of amino, 74.59 and 93.25 g/100 g protein, respectively were found. The results also indicated that oleic acid and linoleic acid were the dominant unsaturated fatty acids in tea seed oils, irrespective of extraction methods and sources. The TSO(SCF) contained the highest levels of squalene, lupeol, and total sterols whereas TSCO(SCF) and TSO(CP) had higher contents of total phenolics and α‐tocopherol. The TG/DTG curves showed TSO(CP) and TSO(SCF) were more thermally stable than TSCO(SCF), and the antioxidant activity assays demonstrated that TSO(CP) and TSCO(SCF) exhibited stronger radical scavenging ability. The overall physicochemical properties of the tested oils indicated that TSO(SCF) had the best oil quality. This work may be useful to food oil industry to produce high quality tea seed oils through utilization of suitable oil extraction methods and raw materials.Practical applications: The growing consumption of green tea promoted the increased production of tea seed, which has totaled as much as 1.6 million tons annually since 2011. As an important source of edible oil, the exploitation rate of tea seed is insufficient (≤1%) in China. This study indicates that oil extracted from tea seed as well as cold‐pressing cake can be exploited for high quality edible oil because of similar fatty acid composition and better bioactive compound composition (e.g., α‐tocopherol, total phytoterols, and lupeol) compared to olive oil. Further, the evaluation of thermal stability provides basis for oil's refining to prepare salad oil, mayonnaise, etc. TSO(SCF) and TSCO(SCF) both had good antioxidant activity, which is applicable in the industry of skincare.A comparison study has been performed for tea seed oils (TSO) extracted from different methods and sources, which were oil from cold‐pressing of tea seeds [TSO(CP)], oil from supercritical fluid extraction of seeds [TSO(SCF)], and oil from supercritical fluid extraction of tea seed cake [TSCO(SCF)]. The chemical composition, thermal stability, antioxidant properties, and physicochemical properties of the oils were determined.

In vitro evaluation of antiviral activity of tea seed saponins against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is one of the major swine pathogens. This virus causes immune suppression and other secondary infections, leading to significant economic losses in the swine industry. Tea seed saponins (TS) are a natural extract from tea seeds with anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and antiviral activity. In this study, we demonstrated that TS possessed anti-PRRSV activity. MTT assay and trypan blue staining were used to evaluate the cytotoxicity and antiviral ability of TS in cell culture. Apoptosis was measured to assess the safety of TS on Marc-145 cells. Time-of-addition assay, entry inhibition assay and virucidal assay were used to assess the antiviral action of TS. The effect of TS on host cellular gene expression was analysed by real-time PCR. Absolute quantification RT-PCR and western blot were used to study the inhibitory effect of TS on PRRSV N gene and protein expression. Our results showed that 50% cytotoxic concentrations (CC50) and 50% effective concentration (EC50) of TS were 59.86 ±0.3841 µg/ml and 24.29 ±1.194 μg/ml, respectively. The maximum non-cytotoxic concentration of TS on Marc-145 cells was 30 μg/ml. TS inhibited PRRSV-induced cell apoptosis and effectively inhibited PRRSV replication by reducing the expression of host cellular gene PABP, and significantly inhibited virus N gene/protein expression. TS possessed anti-PRRSV activity in vitro and could serve as a potential antiviral drug for PRRSV prevention and control.

Astragalin inhibits airway eotaxin-1 induction and epithelial apoptosis through modulating oxidative stress-responsive MAPK signaling.

BackgroundEotaxin proteins are a potential therapeutic target in treating the peribronchial eosinophilia associated with allergic airway diseases. Since inflammation is often associated with an increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress is a mechanistically imperative factor in asthma. Astragalin (kaempferol-3-O-glucoside) is a flavonoid with anti-inflammatory activity and newly found in persimmon leaves and green tea seeds. This study elucidated that astragalin inhibited endotoxin-induced oxidative stress leading to eosinophilia and epithelial apoptosis in airways.MethodsAirway epithelial BEAS-2B cells were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the absence and presence of 1–20 μM astragalin. Western blot and immunocytochemical analyses were conducted to determine induction of target proteins. Cell and nuclear staining was also performed for ROS production and epithelial apoptosis.ResultsWhen airway epithelial cells were exposed to 2 μg/ml LPS, astragalin nontoxic at ≤20 μM suppressed cellular induction of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and ROS production enhanced by LPS. Both LPS and H2O2 induced epithelial eotaxin-1 expression, which was blocked by astragalin. LPS activated and induced PLCγ1, PKCβ2, and NADPH oxidase subunits of p22phox and p47phox in epithelial cells and such activation and induction were demoted by astragalin or TLR4 inhibition antagonizing eotaxin-1 induction. H2O2-upregulated phosphorylation of JNK and p38 MAPK was dampened by adding astragalin to epithelial cells, while this compound enhanced epithelial activation of Akt and ERK. H2O2 and LPS promoted epithelial apoptosis concomitant with nuclear condensation or caspase-3 activation, which was blunted by astragalin.ConclusionsAstragalin ameliorated oxidative stress-associated epithelial eosinophilia and apoptosis through disturbing TLR4-PKCβ2-NADPH oxidase-responsive signaling. Therefore, astragalin may be a potent agent antagonizing endotoxin-induced oxidative stress leading to airway dysfunction and inflammation.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of triterpene saponins from tea seed pomace (Camellia oleifera Abel) and their activities against bacteria and fungi.

A method using LC-ESI-IT-TOF/MS and LC/UV-ELSD was established to qualitatively analyze triterpene saponins obtained from the tea seed pomace (Camellia oleifera Abel). In addition, the quantitative analysis of oleiferasaponin A1 using LC/UV was developed. The purified total saponins did not exhibit any inhibitory effects at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 10 mg/mL against the tested bacteria, except for Staphyloccocus aureus and Escherichia coli. By contrast, higher inhibitory activity was seen against the tested fungi, especially against Bipolaris maydis. Following treatment with an MIC value of 250 μg/mL for 24 h, the mycelial morphology was markedly shriveled in appearance or showed flattened and empty hyphae, with fractured cell walls, ruptured plasmalemma and cytoplasmic coagulation or leakage. These structural changes hindered the growth of mycelia.

Prevention of vascular disease of vegetable oils in HUVEC (959.15)

To confirmation of anti‐atherosclerosis effect by treatment of various vegetable oils, we determined the activity of cell proliferation, cell migration and NO production in HUVECs. The results of proliferation assay on vegetable oil treated HUVEC showed that, TNF‐α increased the cell proliferation and the pine nuts 0.1 μl/ml, safflower seeds 0.1 μl/ml, ginseng seeds 0.1 μl/ml inhibited the cell proliferation activity by 89.4%, 90.34%, and 91.4%, respectively, but, other vegetable oil did not affected. In cell migration assay, classified the cultured cell plates with the tip scratches and then treated with TNF‐α to stimulate cell migration. Red pepper seed, green tea seeds, citron seeds, and ginseng seeds oils of 12 vegetable oils inhibited TNF‐α‐stimulated cell migration. Nitric oxide synthase activation effect of vegetable oils was measured by NO production assay. Ginseng seeds 0.1 μl/ml, safflower seeds 0.1 μl/ml, chinese pepper 0.1 μl/ml increased the NO production by 131.43%, 129.63%, and 129.52%, respectively, but other oils did not affected. Therefore, our results suggest that further studies are required to verify the prevention of vascular disease by vegetable oil.

Modeling Hyperelastic Behavior of Natural Rubber/Organomodified Kaolin Composites Oleochemically Derived from Tea Seed Oils (Camellia sinensis) for Automobile Tire Side Walls Application

This paper is on the modeling and prediction of limit stresses of Natural Rubber/Organomodified kaolin composites oleochemically derived from Tea Seed Oils (Camellia sinensis).The stress-strain data reports of Natural Rubber/Tea Seed Oil modified (NR/TSO) kaolin were used to develop hyperelastic models using ANSYS 14.0 work bench. Arruda-Boyce, Mooney-Rivlin 9 Parameter, Polynomial 3rd Order and Yeoh 3 rd Order models were found to give perfect fit for NR/TSO modified kaolin composites. The energy absorption capabilities were measured on the functions derived from stressstrain data to establish the toughness of Natural Rubber/Unmodified Kaolin (NR/UMK) and NR/TSO modified Kaolin. The NR/UMK has its approximate strain energy as 29.12MJ/m 3

Cultivar Characterization of Tea Seed Oils by Their Active Components and Antioxidant Capacity

AbstractCultivar characterization of tea seed oils based on their active components and antioxidant capacity was carried out, providing fundamental data for authentication. The seeds were collected from 28 cultivars grown under the same conditions in the region of Anxi county of Fujian province and their oils were analyzed. The results showed that total phenols content (TPC), total flavonoids content, α‐tocopherol contents, γ‐tocopherol content and δ‐tocopherol content were 16.7–529.3 mg GAE/kg of oil, 4.4–208.7 mg rutin/kg of oil, 7.7–347.1 mg/kg of oil, 1.8–106.7 mg/kg of oil, 0.003–35.769 mg/kg of oil, respectively. The antioxidant capacity measured by DPPH radical scavenging activity (DPPH), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), absorbance of protein carbonyl (APC) and the absorbance of protein hydroperoxides (APH) were 91.0–2,164.5 μmol/100 g of oil, 251.0–1,209.5 μmol/100 g of oil, 0.014–0.135, 0.034–0.458, respectively. The correlation analysis revealed that the presence of phenolic compounds was significantly correlated with the antioxidant capacity of tea seed oil. Principal Component Analysis revealed the first three components accounted for 81.31 % of the total variance within the data and the main contributor parameters were DPPH, ORAC, APC, APH and TPC. Hierarchical cluster analysis classified the cultivars into three groups, which were in line with the genetic relationship among the cultivars. Our results supplied basic data for the antioxidant mechanism research of tea seed oil and provided necessary information to develop a breeding program directed to tea seed cultivar selections with the high nutraceutical value of tea seed oil.

New Process for Extracting Oil and Starch from Tea Seeds

A new process for extracting oil and starch from tea seed was introduced. The new process included one special link compared with all of the processes used now for tea seed oil and starch production. The link was static fermentation by which oil bodies and starch were separated naturally from tea seeds. By the process, tea seed oil and starch which were in conformity with government standards about edible oil and starch were successfully produced with 16% and 8% of production rate, respectively. The new process has many advantages, such as more simple equipments, lower production cost and whole natural products, etc..

Purification, characterization and biological activities in vitro of polysaccharides extracted from tea seeds

Three polysaccharide fractions (NTSPS, ATSPS1-1 and ATSPS2) were isolated and purified from the water extract of tea (Camellia sinensis) seeds with yields of 32.74%, 25.22%, and 11.09%, respectively. The average molecular weight of NTSPS, ATSPS1-1 and ATSPS2 was determined by HPGPC system, with an Mw of 4.588, 500 and 100kDa, respectively. Monosaccharide analysis by ion chromatography revealed they differed from each other in monosaccharide kinds and molar ratio. Furthermore, ATSPS1-1 and ATSPS2 were heteropolysaccharide bounded with protein (2.83% and 2.12%) and 17 general amino acids were detected in them on an ion-chromatographic analyzer. The IR spectrum of ATSPS1-1 and ATSPS2 revealed the typical characteristics of polysaccharides and protein. In addition, the antitumor and immunological activity of the three polysaccharide fractions in vitro were also evaluated. It was found inhibition activity of NTSPS, ATSPS1-1 and ATSPS2 on K562 cells increased with increasing sample concentration and the inhibition ratios of them at 400μg/mL were beyond 30.13±3.54%, 36.61±2.75% and 32.33±2.53%, respectively. They also exhibited strong ability in promoting proliferation of mice splenic lymphocyte. Results of these studies indicated the three purified polysaccharides had a potential application as natural antitumor drugs.

The Performance and Emissions of a Diesel Engine Fueled with Tea Seed (Camellia sinensis) Oil Biodiesel-Diesel Fuel Blends

The study presents the results of investigations carried out on a four-cylinder, four-stroke, direct injection diesel engine operated with tea seed (Camellia sinensis) oil biodiesel. The oil from tea seeds was extracted from grounded seeds using the Soxhlet extraction apparatus. The biodiesel was produced by transesterification of tea seed oil with methanol in the presence of a catalyst (NaOH). After being blended with regular diesel fuel (D), the fuel properties of tea seed biodiesel (B) was determined according to ASTM and EN standards. The fuel mixtures (biodiesel content at the volumetric ratios of 10%B–90%D (B10), 20%B–80%D (B20), and 100%B (B100)) were tested in a direct injection diesel engine at full load condition. The results indicated a decrease in the observed power output with the increase in biodiesel content in the mixture. Specific fuel consumption (SFC) values were increased depending on the amount of biodiesel in the test fuels. While CO and CO2 emissions were reduced, NOx emissions were increased with increasing biodiesel contents in the mixture. It can be concluded that, tea seed oil, as an agricultural crop, might be a reasonable raw material for the biodiesel production. It was also shown that, up to 20% volumetric content of tea seed biodiesel could be effectively used in fuel mixture serving the purpose of reduction in diesel fuel usage.

Long‐term seed survival and dispersal dynamics in a rodent‐dispersed tree: testing the predator satiation hypothesis and the predator dispersal hypothesis

Summary Mast seeding in animal‐dispersed plants has previously been accounted for by two main hypotheses: the predator satiation hypothesis (that it increases seed survival and establishment before dispersal) and the predator dispersal hypothesis (that it increases seed dispersal or dispersal distance). However, neither hypothesis has been rigorously tested with simultaneous data on seed production, seed predation and seed dispersal by vertebrate seed predators. We studied oil tea Camellia oleifera (Theaceae) seed production for eight years (2002–2009) in a subtropical forest in south‐west China, and investigated how annual seed and rodent abundance determined per capita seed availability for rodent seed predators and seed dispersers and how seed and rodent abundance were related to seed dispersal and seed survival via scatter‐hoarding. We predicted the patterns of seed dispersal and survival to test the two hypotheses about mast seeding. Edward's long‐tailed rat Leopoldamys edwardsi acted as the principal seed disperser of oil tea seeds because of scatter‐hoarding, while other sympatric rodent species acted only as seed predators. We first provided a reasonable method to estimate per capita seed availability based on annual seed abundance and annual metabolic rodent abundance (corrected for metabolic‐scaling body mass of each rodent species). We found that annual seed abundance, annual metabolic rodent abundance and per capita seed availability all had some significant effects on different estimators of seed fates (including dispersal distances) across each stage from seedfall to seedling establishment. Both annual seed abundance and per capita seed availability were positively correlated with pre‐dispersal seed survival, but negatively correlated with scatter‐hoarding (and recaching), seed survival after dispersal and dispersal distances. However, annual metabolic rodent abundance had a positive effect on scatter‐hoarding, but had a negative effect on the time to cache recovery. Synthesis. Since greater seed production was associated with improvement in pre‐dispersal survival of oil tea seeds but a reduction in dispersal (including secondary dispersal and dispersal distance), our long‐term study indicates that, compared with the predator dispersal hypothesis, the predator satiation hypothesis provides a better mechanism predicting seed dispersal and seed survival in animal‐dispersed plants by integrating seed abundance and animal abundance.

Proteomic insights into seed germination in response to environmental factors

Seed germination is a critical process in the life cycle of higher plants. During germination, the imbibed mature seed is highly sensitive to different environmental factors.However, knowledge about the molecular and physiological mechanisms underlying the environmental effects on germination has been lacking. Recent proteomic work has provided invaluable insight into the molecular processes in germinating seeds of Arabidopsis, rice (Oryza sativa), soybean (Glycine max), barley (Hordeum vulgare), maize (Zeamays), tea (Camellia sinensis), European beech (Fagus sylvatica), and Norway maple (Acer platanoides) under different treatments including metal ions (e.g. copper and cadmium), drought, low temperature, hormones, and chemicals (gibberellic acid, abscisic acid, salicylic acid, and α-amanitin), as well as Fusarium graminearum infection. A total of 561 environmental factor-responsive proteins have been identified with various expression patterns in germinating seeds. The data highlight diverse regulatory and metabolic mechanisms upon seed germination, including induction of environmental factor-responsive signaling pathways, seed storage reserve mobilization and utilization, enhancement of DNA repair and modification, regulation of gene expression and protein synthesis, modulation of cell structure, and cell defense. In this review, we summarize the interesting findings and discuss the relevance and significance for our understanding of environmental regulation of seed germination.

Biodiesel Production From Tea Seed (Camellia Sinensis) Oil and its Blends With Diesel Fuel

Biodiesel has been produced from various vegetable oils, such as palm, canola (rapeseed), cottonseed, sunflower, and soybean oils as well as a variety of less common oils. This study evaluated the production of biodiesel using tea seed (Camellia sinensis) oil as a raw material. Methyl ester was produced by transesterification of tea seed oil with methanol in the presence of a catalyst (NaOH). The fuel properties such as pour point (PP), kinematic viscosity, cetane number, flash point, density, copper strip corrosion, and heating value were determined and discussed in light of American (ASTM D6751) and European (EN 14214) biodiesel standards. Not only the specifications of pure biodiesel but also its blends with diesel fuel were analyzed. Biodiesel produced from tea seed oil exhibit a low pour point value of −5°C, one of the lowest found for a biodiesel fuel. The cold flow properties of tea seed methyl ester (TSME) demonstrate its operational viability during the cold weather conditions. As a result, tea seed oil, as agricultural crop, might be a reasonable raw material for the biodiesel production.

Astragalin inhibits allergic asthma through modulating oxidative stress‐responsive MAPK signaling

Allergic asthma is airway obstruction and chronic inflammation and is triggered by inhaled allergens such as dust mite allergen and pollen. Since inflammation is often associated with an increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the biochemical environment in the asthmatic airways is favorable for ROS‐mediated reactions, it can be assumed that oxidative stress is a mechanistically‐imperative factor in asthma. Astragalin (kampferol‐3‐O‐glucopyranoside), a flavonoid with anti‐cancer, antimicrobial properties, has been isolated from tea seeds. This study elucidated whether oxidative stress activated allergic asthmatic responses in airway epithelial BEAS‐2B cells, which was suppressed by treating 1–20 μM astragalin. When airway epithelial cells were exposed to 2 μg/ml LPS, nontoxic astragalin at 1–20 μM suppressed LPS‐induced ROS production, evidenced by fluorescent DCFH‐DA staining. Astragalin attenuated LPS‐enhanced expression of PKCβ2 and p22phox and H2O2‐upregulated phosphorylation of JNK and p38 rapidly within 30 min. In contrast, the phosphorylation of Akt and ERK increased due to astragalin treatment. Additionally, astragalin attenuated LPS‐ or H2O2‐induced eotaxin‐1 protein expression of epithelial cells. Therefore, dietary astragalin can be effective in ameliorating allergic airway diseases through modulating oxidative stress‐responsive MAPK signaling pathway.

Determination of the Contact Angles of Kaolin Intercalates of Oleochemicals Derived from Rubber Seed (HeveaBrasiliensis) and Tea Seed (CameliaSinensis) Oils by the Capillary Rise Method

Pristine kaolin was organically modified by employing derivatives of oleochemicals namely rubber seed oil (SRSO) and tea seed oil (STSO). Intercalation was attained by the entrance of hydrazine hydrate as co-intercalate. Characterization of the pristine kaolin and modified kaolin was done using powder X-ray diffraction which revealed increase in the interlayer basal spacing d-001 for the SRSO-modified and STSO-modified kaolins, confirming intercalation process. The FTIR studies further revealed that the fatty acid salts of rubber seed oil and tea seed oil were effectively intercalatedin the kaolinite layers as per the bands at 1564 cm-1and 1553 cm-1for SRSO-modified and STSO-modified kaolins respectively. The contact angle measurement using capillary rise method was performed to confirm that the pristine kaolin with initial contact angle value of ~45° was effectively modified and ‘wetted’ from hydrophilic state to hydrophobic state of ~90° for the SRSO-modified and STSO-modified kaolin.The determination of the contact angles of the kaolin was performed to confirm intercalation of the modified kaolin with the oleochemical derivatives.