Tea Farmers Research Articles

EFFECT OF TEA FARMING HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS ON POVERTY LEVELS AMONG TEA FARMERS IN KONOIN SUB-COUNTY, KENYA

Tea is a major economic activity in Kenya. However, its contributions in eradicating poverty has not been studied and documented, especially on small-scale tea farmers. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of farming household characteristics on poverty levels among tea farmers in Konoin sub-County. The objectives of the study were to determine the effect of family size, age, gender of household head and number of labour units engaged on poverty levels among tea farmers. To achieve the purpose of the study, the hypothesis tested was: farm household characteristics (family size, age gender of household head, number of labour units engaged) have a significant effect on poverty levels among tea farmers. The sample that took part in the study was 380, selected from a target population of approximately 36,000 small-scale tea farming households. The sample was selected proportionately from 12 tea catchment areas. Generalized Linear Model (GLM) and censored Tobit regression models were used to analyze data. The household characteristics; household size, gender of the household’s head, labour units engaged, age and dependency ratio were found to significantly influence the income levels of the households. Family size was found to be significant in predicting the poverty levels of tea farming households, while the age of the household head and dependency ratio significantly influence both poverty gap and depth of the households. As a recommendation, interventions targeting on family size closely linked to dependency ratio and the age of the households should more inform policy formulation targeting poverty reduction among small-scale tea farming households.

The Impact of Adoption of Recommended Tea Plucking Interval on Tea Yields in Kenya

ABSTRACTThis study employs the endogenous switching regression model to examine the impact of the adoption of recommended tea plucking interval on tea yields among small-scale tea farmers in main tea-growing regions of Kenya. The study utilises cross-sectional farm household level data collected from a randomly selected sample of 413 households. Results support the notion that self-selection occurs and that estimates that do not consider selection-bias would be biased. Different determinants are found to be significant in explaining the tea yields for adopters and non-adopters. Thus, policy makers should consider these differing effects when designing development projects to increase tea yields.

A Comparative Study of Gender Roles in Tea Sector in Embu and Murang’a Counties, Kenya: A Case Study of Smallholder Tea Farmers

<div><p><em>Men and women perform different roles within the household and in agricultural sector. However, women’s roles are more strenuous and more pronounced and they work extra hours in providing the much needed labour on the tea farms than the men counterpart. But in spite of women’s much involvement in agricultural sector, they undergo discrimination in all aspects not only related to land ownership but also kept out when it comes to control and access to the benefits accrued from tea farming. This study therefore sought to determine gender roles in tea production in Embu and Murang’a counties and also to assess the accessibility and control over the benefits accrued from tea farming by gender. Stratified random sampling; simple random sampling and Purposive sampling techniques were used to sample 276 respondents from estimated target population of </em><em>18,000 tea growers from the two counties under study. </em><em>The study established that women perform more roles in tea plantation than their male counterparts. The findings clearly demonstrated that the most tedious and difficult roles that took long hours to accomplish were assigned to the women for instance, the plucking of tea, taking green leaves to the buying centre and collecting/receiving pay slips from the factory or buying centre was majorly done by the women but it’s men who goes to the bank to earn bonus and monthly payments for the work didn’t participate and also attending annual general meetings (AGMs) or any meetings at the factory or buying centre and even organized educational forums and surveys since they knew that at the end of it they would either receive certificate of participation and more importantly sitting allowance. The finding further revealed that, men were assigned themselves roles that lighter duties that might require bit of skills such as pruning of tea bushes and nursery establishment. On the other hand women are unable to attend the forums or meetings because of numerous roles waiting for them ranging from household chores to agricultural production. Although conflicts have been in arise over the control of proceeds of tea sales because men receive the benefits and women who worked for them do not seem to benefit much, this gender discrimination had negatively affected tea production and by extension resulted in decline of tea yields and neglected tea bush. This study recommends that Kenya tea development agency to increase its sensitization forums and conducts regular workshops to educate the tea growers on gender balance in regards to distribution of proceeds from tea sales, access to and control over tea benefits. This could not only help to empower and motivate women but also demystify the gender stereotypes that men have about women and therefore eliminate gender discrimination in tea growing communities.</em></p></div>

Environmental management of tea production using joint of life cycle assessment and data envelopment analysis approaches

In this study, two methods including data envelopment analysis (DEA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) were applied in order to determine energy efficiency and aid in the reduction of environmental burdens for tea production in Guilan province, Iran. The initial data were collected from 30 tea producers using a face‐to‐face questionnaire. Two models including constant return to scale (CCR) and variable return to scale (BCC) were used for calculating efficiency scores. Simultaneously, ten impact categories (AD, AC, EP, GW, OLD, FE, ME, HT, TE, and PO) were assessed to identify the main problem areas in the tea farms. The results indicated that the average technical efficiency, pure technical efficiency and scale efficiency were 0.881, 0.979, and 0.897, respectively. Moreover, the total energy saving was computed to be in the range of 7193 MJ ha−1. The highest share of total energy saving potential belonged to nitrogen with 65.93% observed. Based on the results, nitrogen, diesel fuel and machinery were the main hotspots in the majority of impact categories in both of present and DEA farms. Furthermore, in this study, the potential for impact category reduction was investigated and the results illustrated that between 17 and 20% of emissions can be reduced by converting present to DEA farms. In conclusion, the joint DEA + LCA method can improve the energy efficiency and environmental impacts in tea production, significantly. © 2017 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 36: 1116–1122, 2017

Enriched Vermicompost for Application in Tea Soils of North Eastern India

There is an increasing emphasis on reducing the input of chemical fertilizers in tea production and use of more organic inputs which can help to maintain soil health as well as sustain yields in the long run. A field experiment was initiated in 2008 at the experimental tea farm of Tocklai Tea Research Institute (TTRI), Jorhat, Assam, to study the suitability of alternate sources of organic manures for use in the planting pit at the time of planting of two tea clones TV1 and S.3A/3 in 105 × 60 cm spacings. Three manures viz., conventional cattle manure, P-enriched vermicompost and nomal vermicompost were used @ 250 g per pit by mixing with excavated soil from planting pit. Results indicated significantly higher growth stem girth in young tea in the P-enriched vermicompost treatments over normal vermicompost @ 250 g per pit and conventional cattle manure @ 4 kg per pit. Use of P-enriched vermicompost as planting pit mixture also resulted in saving of fertilizer cost considerably.

Practical Utilization of Botanical Extracts and Microbial in Controlling Dieback Disease of Tea [<i>Camellia sinensis</i> (L) O. Kuntze] Caused by <i>Fusarium solani</i> (Mart.) Sacc.

In Northeast Indian tea plantations infection of Fusaruim solani , resulting dieback of tea plant is increasing which causes considerable crop loss during the recent times. In this investigation, native plant extracts, i.e. Acorus calamus L., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Clerodendrum viscosum Vent., and Xanthium strumarium L. and microbials i.e. Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma viride Pers. were utilized to evaluate the efficacy in controlling dieback disease of tea. These extracts inhibited the growth of Fusarium solani by 60-90%. In field application of C. viscosum and X. strumarium extracts reduced the disease up to 89.3% and 81% respectively. More than 70% disease reduction was observed when aqueous extracts of A. calamus and A. indica were used separately. Maximum disease reduction was achieved up to 86.9% due to application of T. viride . The results, thus, suggested the potential use of herbal extracts and microbial strains as an effective component of integrated disease management (IDM) schedule in the organic tea farming. The methods and rate of application are also discussed.

From soldiers to farmers: The political geography of Chinese Kuomintang territorialization in northern Thailand

This paper engages with the concept of territorialization through telling the story of the transformation of Chinese former Kuomintang (KMT) soldiers of Yunnanese origin and their descendants living in northern Thailand, from being opium and heroin traders and smugglers, to becoming mercenaries fighting against the Communist Party of Thailand in northern Thailand on behalf of the Thai military, to finally transforming into tea farmers and traders through receiving development aid support provided from the Republic of China (Taiwan). Taiwan's development aid was ostensibly only for humanitarian purposes, but in reality also had important underlying political objectives. We argue territorialization is a more-than-human political technology. In particular, it is argued that territorialization frequently combines both military politics and development politics, even though the literature often separates these two elements, as if they are not frequently intertwined and interrelated. Here, we show how these two forms of politics, one explicit and one much less so, can come together to create new social and economic realities, ones with important geographical and geopolitical implications.

GAP 인증 제도를 통한 차품질관리 활성화 방안 연구

The tea producers are proud of the best quality by producing and selling products in small scale by setting each tea manufacture law and quality control standard. However, it has a difference with the quality recognized by consumers who have distrust for the quality due to cases of residual pesticide and so on.
 Local governments in tea growing areas are actively introducing logistics quality certification system, geographical indication system, international organic certification system and environment-friendly agricultural products certification system for the quality control.
 However, for securing the safety of agricultural products, there is little use of GAP certification system that manages hazardous substances such as pesticides, heavy metals or harmful organisms that may remain in the agricultural environment such as soil·water quality and agricultural products, from the production stage to the post-harvest packaging stage. Among 1,088,542 farms currently got GAP certifications, only four farms are certified as GAP certified tea leaves.
 In order to secure the safety of agricultural products and secure our competitiveness, it is necessary to activate GAP certification system not only in tea farms but also in local governments.

Impact of World Trade Organization on Demand Pattern and Opportunities to Tea Farmers in Nepal

Nepal became member of WTO after it adopted open market and economic liberalization policy. Obviously, this kind of membership tow TO could have some kind of implications on Nepalese market. This article is based on the empirical data generated through intensive fieldwork. This article reveals that after Nepal became member of WTO it has direct impact on the demand pattern of Nepalese market. But there is no influence in the creation of new employment opportunities. However, farmers have got different opportunities of getting trainings and access to formal and informal education. More importantly, access to WTO has transformed tea farming from subsistence to commercial and thus increasing the demand of Nepalese tea in international market.

Dualisme di Lingkungan Perusahaan Inti Rakyat (PIR) Lokal Teh Di Jawa

This research aimed to analyse dualism between plasm farmers and nucleus estate in the Tea Local Nucleus Estate Smallholder Scheme at Java. The study is conducted in West and Center of Java Provinces. Data of 330 household samples are analyzed by Proportion Test.Although most of plasm fanners have the technical cropping and the use of input and labour are lower than nucleus estate, but the gapa on productivity, product quality, income of tea farming, and fanning efficiency are small.There is still dualism in the Tea Local Nucleus Estate Smallholder Scheme at Java, but it tends to decline. This gap become smaller between Smallholder Scheme could make smaller distance between smallholder plantation and estate.

Carbon dioxide assimilation and photosynthetic electron transport of tea leaves under nitrogen deficiency.

BackgroundTea plant is famed in humid and sub-humid of tropical regions, sub-tropical regions, and is a leaf-harvested crop. Nitrogen is the most important nutrient for increasing quality of tea leaves. Therefore, large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer are increasingly applied by tea farmers. Appropriate application of nitrogen fertilizer aroused people’s concern. This research of physiological response to N deficiency stress will be helpful for appropriate application of nitrogen fertilizer for tea farmers and elucidate a mechanistic basis for the reductions in carbon dioxide (CO2) assimilation.ResultsTo elucidate a mechanistic basis for the reductions in carbon dioxide (CO2) assimilation under nitrogen (N) deficiency tea leaves, changes in chlorophyll (Chl), carbohydrates, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and chlorophyll fluorescence transient were examined together with six N treatment (0, 50, 100, 300, 1200 or 6000 μM N). Root, stem and leaves dry weight (DW) increased as N supply increased from 0 to 300 μM, then remained unchanged. The reductions in CO2 assimilation of N-deficient leaves paralleled with high intercellular CO2 concentration. Rubisco activity, protein and Chl content increased linearly or curvilinearly over the range of leaf N content examined except unchanged as leaf N from 2.15 to 2.79 g m−2. Chlorophyll fluorescence transient from N-deficient leaves displayed a depression at the P-step, accompanied by a new step at about 150 μs (L-step). Fv/Fm, REo/ETo, ETo/ABS, Sm, ETo/CSo, PIabs, PItot, abs, were decreased in N-deficient leaves but increased DIo/CSo, DIo/RC and DIo/ABS. Regressive analysis showed that CO2 assimilation decreased linearly or curvilinearly with decreasing initial rubisco, PIabs and Leaf Chl, respectively. Therefore, we concluded the decreased photosynthetic electron transport capacity, leaf chl content and initial rubisco activity are probably the main factors contributing to decreased CO2 assimilation under N deficiency.ConclusionsThe decreased photosynthetic electron transport capacity, leaf Chl content and initial rubisco activity are probably the main factors contributing to decreased CO2 assimilation under N deficiency.

Advances in Research on Tea Species Adaptive to Climatic Changes

Research done by small scale farmers through simple random sampling in Nyagesenda village, Sensi location, Kisii County, indicated five species of tea plants apart from Assam and china planted in mixed mode in their farms. The research was on experimental basis on the behavior, characteristic or features and appearance of tea harvested on production stage. The farmers experienced changes in tea behavior and characteristic in wet and dry seasons, as some ripen quickly after plucking during rainy season and others dry quickly during drought season. The farmers needed to identify a variety drought resistant, qualitative and quantitative production throughout the year. True experimental research was deliberately manipulated for ten years through observation method, on the alternating climatic changes of the area, in relation to occurrence of hail stones and drought. The research key findings of the varieties were; first, Tea leaves-slow to ripen rainy season, dark green, slender and small surface, soft plucking, and drought resistant, low weights and slow to ripen after hail stones. Second, tea leaves-quick to ripen rainy season, dark green, wide and large surface, softer plucking, dries quickly in drought season, weighs high and quick to ripen after hail stones. Third, tea leaves-quick to ripen rainy season, dark green, slender and small surface, softer plucking,drys in drought, weighs low, quick to ripen after hail stones. Fourth, Tea leaves-slow to ripen rainy season, yellowish green, wide and large surface, hard plucking, drought resistant weights low, slow to ripen after hail stones. Fifth, tea leaves-quick to ripen rainy season and never dry up in drought, yellowish green, average surface, softer to pluck rainy season and hard dry season, adaptive to all seasons, weighs high during rainy season and low dry season and ripens quickly after hail stones. It is concluded as the best variety followed by second and first and third varieties and lastly fourth variety. It is recommended all varieties are significant, therefore, should be grown in sections in the farm not in a mixed variety as it is done in tea farms.

Stakeholders' Perception on Marginal Small Tea Farming and Fuelwood Planting: A Case study in Sri Lanka

Stakeholders' Perception on Marginal Small Tea Farming and Fuelwood Planting: A Case study in Sri Lanka

Sustainability Implication of the Lestari Tea Certification Program Implementation on the Tea Small Holder at Campaka Subdistrict Cianjur

In order to increase the income of tea smallholder and maintain the sustainability of tea, Dewan Teh Indonesia collaborated with Business Watch Indonesia in establishing a local certification scheme that is called as Lestari Tea Certification Program. This certification program has been conducted at some areas since 2011 until 2013 and one of the areas was Campaka sub-district, Cianjur. This research aimed at analysing the sus­tainability impact of the certification program by questionnaire and interview data collection. Analysing sustainability is conducted by using Mann-Whitney test by comparing the per­ception of the tea farmers who participated and those who didn’t participate on the certification program. Independent sample t test is also used to test the differentiation of the mean the income and transportation vehicle and com­munication asset between member of Tea Lestari Certification Program and those who are not. Moreover, logistic regression is used to know which variable more influence the probability for the tea farmers to join the certification program. The output of Mann-Whitney test shows that there is significant difference on the aspect of environment, economy, and social between tea farmers that participated and those who didn’t participate on the certification program. Logistic reg­ression output shows that education level, size of plantation land, and location of village influence the probability of the tea farmers whether to join or not join the Lestari Tea Cerfication Program.

Adoption of Purple Tea Farming as A Coping Mechanism to Climate Change, Kericho County, Kenya (2014)

Abstract Purple tea is considered favourable in terms of productivity, health, market and resistance to changing weather patterns. The study aimed at establishing the rate of adoption of purple tea farming, determining the socio-economic factors that hinder adoption and determining the role of purple tea farming for carbon sequestration. Sampling techniques used included purposive, systematic, random, cluster and stratified. Data was collected by use of CO 2 and RGR algorithm, questionnaires, in-depth interviews, literature review, observation and photography. Analysis was done using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The result showed that purple variety showed high rate of drought resistance (90%) compared to green variety (10%). Green variety showed high resistance to frost and hailstone and low resistance to drought. Purple variety showed a diminished response to disease and pest resistance (70%) while green variety showed improved resistance (30%). T -test result showed that there was significant difference in disease and pest resistance between the two varieties. It is expected that the findings of this study will enable scientific researchers and policy makers make wise decisions regarding the adoption of available adaptation measures to achieve the sustainable development in Kenya. Key words: Adoption; purple, coping, mechanism, sequestration

Integration of full-waveform LiDAR and hyperspectral data to enhance tea and areca classification

Hyperspectral image and full-waveform light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data provide useful spectral and geometric information for classifying land cover. Hyperspectral images contain a large number of bands, thus providing land-cover discrimination. Waveform LiDAR systems record the entire time-varying intensity of a return signal and supply detailed information on geometric distribution of land cover. This study developed an efficient multi-sensor data fusion approach that integrates hyperspectral data and full-waveform LiDAR information on the basis of minimum noise fraction and principal component analysis. Then, support vector machine was used to classify land cover in mountainous areas. Results showed that using multi-sensor fused data achieved better accuracy than using a hyperspectral image alone, with overall accuracy increasing from 83% to 91% using population error matrices, for the test site. The classification accuracies of forest and tea farms exhibited significant improvement when fused data were used. For example, classification results were more complete and compact in tea farms based on fused data. Fused data considered spectral and geometric land-cover information, and increased the discriminability of vegetation classes that provided similar spectral signatures.

Differential transcriptome analysis of leaves of tea plant (Camellia sinensis) provides comprehensive insights into the defense responses to Ectropis oblique attack using RNA-Seq.

Tea is a very popular and healthy nonalcoholic beverage worldwide. As an evergreen woody plant, the cultivation of tea plants (Camellia sinensis) is challenged by biotic stresses, and one of which is feeding of Ectropis oblique. In China, E. oblique infestation causes serious damages in many tea cultivation areas. Tea plants have evolved sophisticated strategies to cope with attack by E. oblique. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of the response to E. oblique in tea plants, the differential gene expression profiles between the E. oblique damage-induced tea plants and undamaged control using RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) were obtained. A total of 1859 differentially expressed genes were identified, including 949 upregulated and 910 downregulated genes. Overall, 90 signal transduction genes, 100 anti-insect responsive transcription factors, 50 genes related to phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, 41 unigenes related to herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) biosynthesis, and 8 caffeine biosynthesis genes were found to be differentially regulated. Metabolic pathway analysis indicated that plant secondary metabolites and the signaling pathways may play an important role in defense against insects, and a closer examination at the expression of some crucial genes revealed differential expression patterns after feeding by E. oblique. Furthermore, quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis further confirmed the results of RNA-Seq. Our dataset provides the most comprehensive sequence resource available for studying the resistance to E. oblique in tea, which will benefit our understanding of the overall mechanisms underlying inducible defenses responses, and may be useful to create novel prevention measures against insects to reduce pesticide usage in eco-friendly tea farming.

The Self-Reliance of Member on Tea Smallholder Farmer Groups in West Java Province, Indonesia

The existence of tea smallholder farmer groups as a social entity has an important and strategic role in realizing the self-reliance of its members on tea farming activity. This study aimed at determining the self-reliance of members on tea smallholder farmer groups in West Java Province, and the factors that influence toward the self-reliance of members on tea smallholder farmer groups in West Java Province. The study used mixed method approach with sequential explanantory strategy. Proportional stratified random sampling with 128 members of tea smallholders farmer group (farmers) or 20% of the sample population with 643 members (farmers) sampling method was used. Quantitative data were analyzed by using path analysis, while qualitative data were analyzed by using triangulation of sources. The study showed that the level of the member's self-reliance of tea smallholder farmer groups as a whole in decision making, initiatives creative and innovative, and solving problems related to the tea farming is in moderate category. The self-reliance of members needs to improve, especially on the initiative, creativity and innovation. From path analysis, member's self-reliance of tea smallholder farmer groups were affected from strongest to weakest by role of tea farmer groups, extension, the availability of capital, farming experience, age, land size, market opportunities, and work motivation. The self-reliance of members on tea smallholder farmer groups most effectively can be enhanced through the improving the role of tea smallholder farmer groups.

Technical development of production and products in organic tea farming

Technical development is necessary for overcoming some key pests and for providing economic management to organic tea growers. The cultivar TTES No. 12 is a satisfactory cultivar for organic tea farming (OTF) in Taiwan for its better resistance to pests. Infection of green leaf hopper tends to make the organic tea made having honey flavor. The key pest of OTF is tea mosquito bug. Long-term application of livestock organic fertilizer tends to accumulate high content of P and K in tea soils. Organic tea growers are recommended to apply oil-seed residues marto lower down their nutrient input costs. Organic liquid fertilizers made from fermented soybeans with sugar, molasses. Microorganism are used as auxiliary N supplements and as pest repellents by spraying on tea leaves regularly. To mitigate organic tea farmers’ burdens in summer weeding, a hand-pushed and comb type weeding machine has been developed with low machine body weight and high efficiency in weeding. Organic tea products are quite diversely developed in Taiwan. Popular marketing of organic products includes green tea, oolong tea, black tea, GABA tea, Akai (red) oolong, honey flavor tea, green tea powder, and RTD tea etc.

Evaluation of tea clones for resistance/tolerance to mites infestations and the influence of environmental factors on mites dynamics in Kenyan tea farms

Mites infestations reduce yields in tea production world wide. However, some tea cultivars are resistant/tolerant to mites attack. The resistance/susceptibility can also be influenced by abiotic factors. This study evaluated some new tea clones for mite resistance/susceptibility and influence of Environmental factors (weather parameters) on dynamics of mite infestations of Kenyan tea at different ecological zones, Kangaita, Kipkebe and Timbilil. Maximum population of mites was reported during March when maximum temperature, average rainfall and relative humidity ranges for the sites were 23.9-28.7°C, 27.7-50.1mm and 38.0-70.4% respectively. There was a sharp decline in mites population in April when average rainfall was high (398.4-514.4mm) which was accompanied by reduction in maximum temperature (18.8-27.5°C) and increase in relative humidity (44.0-82.2%). The minimum population density was found during August which was characterized by low maximum temperature (16.4-26.6°C), low average rainfall (4.8- 190.5mm) and high average relative humidity (46.0-80.9%). The mites infestation levels highly correlated with maximum temperatures in Kangaita (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.801), Kipkebe (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.693) and Timbilil (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.744). There were significant (p≤0.05) monthly variations in clonal mite infestations at all sites. Susceptible clones showed higher monthly mite infestations variations than the resistant/tolerant clones. Of the clones evaluated for the first time, eight new clones were identified as tolerant/resistant while two clones were susceptible to mites attack. Resistant/tolerant clones are recommended for commercial exploitation while mitigation strategies should be put in place in mites prone areas during hot seasons with high monthly temperatures and low humidity