Tea Farmers Research Articles

Detecting tea tree pests in complex backgrounds using a hybrid architecture guided by transformers and multi-scale attention mechanism.

Tea pests pose a significant threat to tea leaf yield and quality, necessitating fast and accurate detection methods to improve pest control efficiency and reduce economic losses for tea farmers. However, in real tea gardens, some tea pests are small in size and easily camouflaged by complex backgrounds, making it challenging for farmers to promptly and accurately identify them. To address this issue, we propose a real-time detection method based on TP-YOLOX for monitoring tea pests in complex backgrounds. Our approach incorporates the CSBLayer module, which combines convolution and multi-head self-attention mechanisms, to capture global contextual information from images and expand the network's perception field. Additionally, we integrate an efficient multi-scale attention module to enhance the model's ability to perceive fine details in small targets. To expedite model convergence and improve the precision of target localization, we employ the SIOU loss function as the bounding box regression function. Experimental results demonstrate that TP-YOLOX achieves a significant performance improvement with a relatively small additional computational cost (0.98 floating-point operations), resulting in a 4.50% increase in mean average precision (mAP) compared to the original YOLOX-s. When compared with existing object detection algorithms, TP-YOLOX outperforms them in terms of mAP performance. Moreover, the proposed method achieves a frame rate of 82.66 frames per second, meeting real-time requirements. TP-YOLOX emerges as a proficient solution, capable of accurately and swiftly identifying tea pests amidst the complex backgrounds of tea gardens. This contribution not only offers valuable insights for tea pest monitoring but also serves as a reference for achieving precise pest control. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

How Women’s Financial Exclusion is Affecting Gender Equity in Tea Farming in Singorwet Ward, Bomet County

Access to finance by women within communities is key to ensuring improved economies and better livelihoods. Having money at hand means women can purchase/ access quality seeds, good farm equipment and efficient technologies. Indeed, money will help women improve their own life style and that of their families (FAO, 2019) The research objectives were to examine the extent of financial exclusion of women in tea farming from the farm all the way to accessing benefits from tea and how it’s affecting gender equity. A cross sectional study design was used and a sample size of 532 tea farmers’ respondents (comprising of 431 male tea farmers and 101 female tea farmers), 2 directors and 10 farm labourers were involved in this study. Purposive sampling was used to pick two director zones in Singorwet ward and stratified random sampling to pick five tea buying centres within Singorwet Zone and Mugango Zone. Questionnaire, interviews and observation schedule were used for data collection. From the findings, it is evident that women though the majority in the tea farming workforce; are the minority in tea farm monthly pay and bonuses. The study recommends a detailed and close to communities’ financial literacy that presents information on owning a tea farm, having a bank account, savings and getting credit from credible sources.

Evaluating the impacts of supply chain management practices on performance of the tea sub sector in developing country

Effective supply chain management is essential for boosting competitive production in industries like the tea subsector. However, overlooking certain practices has been shown to have negative consequences for the performance of the subsector. Therefore, it is vital for stakeholders to understand the implications of these practices. This study utilizes a FullEX approach to examine how supply chain management practices (SCMP) impact the performance of Kenya?s tea subsector. By conducting a thorough review of existing literature, a two-level criteria framework for these practices is established including 5 criteria in level-1 and 15 criteria in level-2. Comparative analysis is then conducted to gauge the strength of our approach. The results indicate that while customer relationship management is the primary driver of performance in Kenya?s tea subsector, additional factors include coordinating resource-sharing initiatives, managing product processes, ensuring customer satisfaction with product value, optimizing distribution channel networks, and enhancing internal integration. The study delivers comprehensive implications and insights relevant to managers and suppliers in tea manufacturing, scholars, researchers, policymakers in Kenya?s tea subsector, the wider community, and tea farmers engaged in the industry.

Human Health Risk Assessment of Organophosphorus Pesticides in Tea Leaves Harvested from Farm Regions of Gilan Province, Iran

Tea holds a special place in Iranian culture, ranking as the most widely consumed beverage after water. A significant portion of Iran’s domestic tea production (approximately 70%) originates from the lush landscapes of Gilan province. The Iranian Tea Research Center (ITRC) claims that Iranian tea is pesticide-free. However, there is a concern that tea farms in the foothills may be exposed to pesticide spraying from nearby citrus gardens. This study aimed to investigate the presence of the 17 organophosphorus pesticides in tea leaf samples collected from tea plantation areas in Gilan province. Sample preparation was carried out using the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction method, followed by the determination of pesticide concentrations using the gas chromatography (GC) method. To assess the non-carcinogenic risk associated with the consumption of black tea due to pesticide residues, we followed the guidelines provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The results were striking, revealing the presence of pesticide residues in all tested samples, raising concerns about the purity of Iranian tea. Notably, the hazard quotient (HQ) for children (<15 years old) exceeded that for adults (>15 years old). Furthermore, spring-harvested tea samples demonstrated higher HQs compared to their autumn counterparts.

Evaluation of The Role of Social Capital in the Tea Farmer Partnership System at PT. Pagilaran Afdeling Samigaluh Kulon Progo

Partnership is a form of cooperation that exists between two parties, where the relationship provides benefits to each other. Partnership cooperation is generally agreed in writing and includes clear rights and obligations between both parties. The commitment that occurs between both parties is the main key in the parthership system. In addition, the role of social capital in the form of trust, norms and social networks is also needed to support the sustainability of partnership, in this case tea farmers and PT. Pagilaran. This research aims to determine the tea farmer partnership system at PT. Pagilaran Afgdeling Samigaluh and find out the role of social capital in the tea farmer partnership system at PT. Pagilaran Afdeling Samigaluh. The method used in this reseach are survey and descriptive with a qualitative approach. The research results show that the partnership system thah exists between tea farmers and PT. Pagilaran Afdeling Samigaluh is a pure partnership system (buy and drop). Apart of that, social capital in the form of trust, norms and social networks in the partnership system between tea farmers and PT. Pagilaran Afdeling Samigaluh plays a very important role in maintaining the sustainability of the partnership and of course still pays attention to the rights and obligations of each parties.

Landscape changes and livelihood outcomes in rural tea farming communities: A case study in Fuding City, Fujian Province, Southeast China

Landscape changes driven by cash crop plantations have been prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide in recent decades. Investigating the landscape changes and concluding livelihood outcomes are fundamental to figure out the solutions for rural sustainability. This paper examined the landscape changes which was caused by land use changes in tea plantations as well as investigated the resultant livelihood impacts, based on a case study in Fuding City, Southeast China. A questionnaire survey of 114 rural households in four sampled villages was conducted. Results demonstrated that expansion and intensification of tea plantations were two major proximate causes of landscape changes in recent decade. Our survey indicated that some existing intensively-managed tea plantations had derived from intensification and expansion of tea plantations, respectively. We identified four underlying driving forces of landscape changes, including economic benefit, governmental policies, wildlife destruction on grain crops, and rural return migration. Our study confirmed that landscape changes have significant positive effects on farmers’ livelihoods, including increasing employment and incomes, raising living standards, enhancing livelihood assets and livelihood sustainability. Especially, the aged rural populations could have a relatively decent living standard. Meanwhile, the excessive expansion of tea plantations may impair livelihood resilience. Lastly, three policy suggestions based on different time scales have been put forward to promote rural households’ livelihood sustainability and resilience.

Carbon footprints of tea production in smallholder plantations: A case study of Fenghuang Dancong tea in China

The high fertilizer application in tea planting and the large energy consumption in tea processing have raised concerns about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of tea production. China is the world's largest tea production country, but its tea production is dominated by smallholder farmers. Therefore, when it comes to GHG emission reduction in tea production, specific measures need to be developed for the smallholder mode. The purpose of this study is to reveal the characteristics and influencing factors of GHG emissions of smallholder tea plantations, as well as to develop GHG emission reduction measures suitable for the smallholder mode. Here, we focus on Fenghuang Dancong tea and two types of smallholder tea plantations, the high-altitude tea plantation (HTP11HTP: the high-altitude tea plantation; MLP: the mid-low-altitude tea plantation; CF: carbon footprint; GHG: greenhouse gas; CO2-eq: CO2 emission equivalent; LCA: life cycle assessment.) and the mid-low-altitude tea plantation (MLP), in Fenghuang Town, Chaozhou City, China. The carbon footprint (CF) method is employed, which is a widely used method for estimating GHG emissions and expressed in CO2 emission equivalent (CO2-eq). The assessment on the CF of the Fenghuang Dancong tea production and a comparative analysis between the HTP and the MLP have been made. Results show that (1) at the tea planting stage, fertilizer input is the main contributor to the CFplanting; electricity input is the primary component of the CFprocessing at the tea processing stage; (2) considering the two stages of tea planting and processing, the CFtea of the MLP is more than twice that of the HTP; (3) the production and management measures adopted by tea farmers have a significant impact on the CFtea, which are mainly driven by economic interests. In view of these findings, we emphasize the importance of balancing GHG emission reduction with economic benefits and propose GHG emission reduction measures such as formulating subsidy policies for organic fertilizers, promoting green and organic product certification, improving the energy input structure and strengthening scientific guidance. We submit that this study will not only help local managers formulate efficient GHG emission reduction measures, but also provide references for other studies on GHG emissions of tea production in the smallholder mode.

Assessing the ecosystem service values of tea plantations using conventional and organic farming methods: Is organic farming always better?

Low-elevation mountainous (LEM) areas in some countries are reclaimed for agriculture (especially, for deep cultivation of tea trees) due to their accessibility, higher temperature, and more rainfall, contributing to biodiversity and ecological balance. However, extensive development in these areas causes lasting ecological damage; and hence it is crucial to evaluate the ecological value of these areas for formulating relevant ecological protection policies. Therefore, this study evaluated the ecosystem service value of tea plantations in LEM areas using the contingent valuation method based on the subjective consciousness of farmers, rather than an objective assessment. A questionnaire survey was conducted on tea farmers in Mingjian Township (which is one of the major tea-producing LEM areas in Mid-Taiwan); and ecosystem service values of tea plantations between conventional farming methods (CFMs) and organic farming methods (OFMs) were compared. Firstly, the differences in willingness to pay (WTP) for the samples including and excluding protest responses were investigated, and then a regression analysis to estimate the WTP price for maintaining the tea plantation ecology was conducted. Empirical results showed a significantly negative correlation between the WTP price and the education level of farmers in tea plantations using CFMs, but a significantly positive correlation in tea plantations using both CFMs and OFMs. Most respondents were male and used CFMs to operate tea plantations; and those with higher monthly income and using both CFMs and OFMs were willing to pay more. Regarding ecosystem services of tea plantations, the respondents preferred the “provisioning” ecosystem services, and were willing to pay an average of NT$ 718.92 and NT$ 794.32 per year for maintaining the ecology of tea plantations using CFMs and OFMs, respectively. The unit ecological value of tea plantations was not inferior to those of coniferous and broad-leaved forests, paddy fields, and algae reefs from previous studies. Finally, some suggestions are proposed for a reference in formulating relevant ecological protection policies.

Evaluating the Effects of Climate Change on Tea and Sustainable Livelihood: A Study of Sri Lankan Tea Plantation Labours

The tea industry of Sri Lanka serves as the backbone of its economy. It gives the highest share of GDP from agricultural production and employment opportunities to a large section of the Sri Lankan population. Tea is confined to cultivated in an optimal climate where temperature and rainfall must be equal. Climate change is an inevitable phenomenon triggering a consequential threat to tea growth and its quality. Similarly, it possesses severe implications for farmers' livelihoods. Because tea plantation plays an active role in rural poverty alleviation and ensuring the food security of estate workers. It has become mandatory for tea farmers and workers to adapt appropriately to climate change in order to ensure sustenance, livelihood, and food security. This study investigates the livelihood challenges led by climate change faced by the working communities in the tea estates of Sri Lanka. This study found that climate change has a multidimensional impact on livelihood and has a nexus with migration.

The Impact of Multi-Subjective Governance on Tea Farmers’ Green Production Behavior Based on the Improved Theory of Planned Behavior

This study constructs a research framework to examine the decision-making process of tea farmers’ green production behavior based on the improved theory of planned behavior, incorporating external environmental factors such as government regulation, market mechanisms, industrial organization-driven environmental factors, and community governance. A structural equation model was employed to empirically analyze the influence paths and underlying mechanisms of multi-subjective governance on tea farmers’ green production behavior using survey data from 872 tea farmers in the main tea-producing areas of Fujian Province. The results showed that (1) government regulation, market mechanisms, and community governance significantly and directly impact the decision-making of tea farmers’ green production behavior, with path coefficients of 0.676, 0.686, and 0.373, respectively, and market mechanisms also indirectly act on green production behavior through perceptual behavioral control, with a path coefficient of 0.459. (2) The market mechanisms had the greatest influence on the decision-making of tea farmers’ green production behavior (total utility of 0.830), followed by government regulation (total utility of 0.676), community governance (total utility of 0.373), and finally, industrial organization-driven factors (total utility of 0.046), indicating that the market organization and the government departments are the most important external environmental forces affecting the decision-making of tea farmers’ green production behavior. The results provide valuable references for achieving effective multi-subjective governance and guiding/regulating tea farmers’ green production behavior. While strengthening the incentives and constraints of government regulations on tea farmers’ green production behavior, it is important to fully leverage the roles of market mechanisms, industrial organization-driven factors, and community governance in the governance of tea farmers’ green production behavior.

Determinants of agritourism development in green tea farms of the northern mountains of Vietnam: A hybrid approach based on the combination of diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory and PLS-SEM

Agritourism is the practice of identifying and capitalizing on rural destinations' diverse on-farm and off-farm attractions. Thai Nguyen, a major green tea farming region belonging to the Northern Mountains of Vietnam, is selected as the study area. This study aims to determine and analyze the factors affecting agritourism development including Green Productivity, Digital Transformation, and Stakeholder Engagement. Five innovative attributes of the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory as Relative Advantage, Compatibility, Complexity, Trialability, and Observability are included. Questionnaires are distributed to 350 farmers inhabited in Thai Nguyen. The Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) is used to analyze at two levels: the determinant and the goal of agritourism development. The study results show that, at the determinant level, innovation attributes of DOI account for 35.8% of farmers' perceptions of Green Productivity (R2 = 0.358), 30.6% for Stakeholder Engagement (R2 = 0.306), and 34.6% for Digital Transformation (R2 = 0.346). At the goal level, Green Productivity, Stakeholder Engagement, and Digital Transformation determinants explain 55.1% of the sustainable development goal of Agritourism (R2 = 0.551). The study findings reveal that the innovation attributes of DOI are strong predictors of how factors like green productivity, stakeholder engagement, and digital transformation play their roles in the sustainable development of agritourism. These factors are helpful in moving agritourism toward its desired long-term growth. Policy suggestions are also presented for the long-term growth of agritourism on regional and national scales in Vietnam.

Analysis of Tea Agroforestry System: The Case of Kyenjojo District in Uganda

Uganda is one of the countries in east Africa where agroforestry farming system has spread in twelve agro-ecological zones. Agroforestry practices are critical in all agro-based sectors like tea industry because of benefits like provision of fuel wood for curing tea. The purpose of this study was to understand the current agroforestry practices adopted by smallholder tea estate farmers and investigate options for scaling up the technology to alleviate the fuelwood scarcity faced by tea industries. The study involved a survey that was conducted in Kyenjojo district located in Western Uganda in June 2020. A total of 65 small holder tea farmers (respondents) were interviewed during the study. A purposive sampling method was used and data analyzed with SPSS to generate descriptive statistics that included frequencies, percentages, tables, graphs and charts. Results showed that shade was the most benefit of agroforestry trees by a proportion of 33% towards tea growing and followed by climate modification at 24%. Protection of the environment was also revealed as one of the leading benefits of tea agroforestry with a proportion of 34%, as well as trees acting as a source of poles at 23%. Eucalyptus at 34% was the most dominant agroforestry tree used at tea farm level as a woodlot, followed by Grevillea robusta at 28%. The most dominant adoption method of tea agroforestry practices at tea farm level was through farmers learning from fellow farmers at 34%, followed by adoption by trainings at 23%. Planting of agroforestry trees was the only remedy stated by farmers as an effort done to retain trees on farm. As a recommendation towards increased uptake of agroforestry at farm level, farmers identified certification and other factory-based incentives such as Rain Forest Alliance being the most important. Based on the identified benefits of tea-agroforestry systems, efforts should be made by Public, Private and Development partners to make all tea farmers aware of the existing and appropriate agroforestry practices while developing appropriate incentive models for increased adoption of tea agroforestry system in Uganda.

Snapshot of a crisis: food security and dietary diversity levels among disrupted conventional and long‐term organic tea‐smallholders in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, conventional and organic smallholder producers grow seventy percent of the country's tea, bring in significant export earnings, and are differentially exposed to input supply shocks. While tea production may be advantageous for the nation's economy, it is less clear whether it is good for the food security of those smallholders involved. This study examines how economic status (income and wealth) and method of tea farming (organic or conventional) influences food security and dietary diversity outcomes in the midst of a fertiliser supply shock. We used data collected in the summer of 2021, a time when an inorganic fertiliser ban went into effect, from 47 organic and 67 conventional tea smallholders in five rural communities in southern and central Sri Lanka. Our findings show that long‐term organic farmers had higher dietary diversity measures than the conventional tea smallholders who were unevenly disrupted by the aforementioned fertiliser ban. The haphazard ban on conventional fertilizer adversely impacted dietary outcomes of conventional farmers. We also discuss how the transition to organic farming would have worked better with more time and planning.

Reflections on promotion of digital payments among smallholder tea farmers in kanungu district

Reflections on promotion of digital payments among smallholder tea farmers in kanungu district

Research on the Improvement of Digital Literacy for Moderately Scaled Tea Farmers under the Background of Digital Intelligence Empowerment

In the context of digital intelligence empowerment, the digital literacy level of tea farmers has a significant impact on the intelligent development and transformation of the tea industry. This study extends the original model of the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) by introducing the personal innovativeness theory and the self-efficacy theory and constructs a new model to explore the influencing factors of moderately scaled tea farmers’ digital literacy improvement behavior. There are a total of 22 research hypotheses. Using structural equation modeling and collecting questionnaire data for analysis, the following research results were obtained. (1) The performance expectancy, social influence, effort expectancy, personal innovativeness, and self-efficacy all significantly positively affected the willingness of tea farmers to improve their digital literacy, according to the path coefficient in descending order: social influence (0.226) > self-efficacy (0.224) > effort expectancy (0.178) > performance expectancy (0.157) > personal innovativeness (0.155). (2) Facilitating conditions and the willingness to improve digital literacy had a significant positive impact on tea farmers’ digital literacy improvement behavior, according to the size of the path coefficient: the willingness to improve (0.271) > facilitating conditions (0.106). (3) The willingness of tea farmers to improve their digital literacy played a complete mediating role between personal innovativeness and self-efficacy on their digital literacy improvement behavior, and was partially mediated between the performance expectancy, social influence, and effort expectancy on their digital literacy improvement behavior. According to the proportion of indirect effects, the order was effort expectancy (27%), performance expectancy (47%), and social influence (49%). (4) The gender and age of tea farmers had a significant positive moderating effect on the impact of performance expectancy on the willingness to improve digital literacy. Age and experience had a significant positive moderating effect on the impact of effort expectancy on the willingness to improve digital literacy. The age of tea farmers had a significant positive moderating effect on the improvement of digital literacy behavior through the facilitating conditions. This study extended the applicability of the UTAUT theoretical model and proposed six strategies to improve the digital literacy of tea farmers, which helps policymakers and industry leaders provide practical guidance for tea farmers to improve their digital literacy and provide reference for research related to farmers’ digital literacy.

The Value of Tea Culture from the Perspective of Integration of Tea and Tourism Industry: A case study of Jingmai Mountain, Yunnan

Under the influence of large modern machinery industry, pesticides which invented artificially are commonly used in modern tea production in order to increase labor productivity greatly. The most important thing is to increase product output in exchange for profits. While modern industry has brought fast development to the tea industry, it has also brought many new problems, such as the excessive application of artificial products such as fertilizers and pesticides, which have polluted the soil and near-body waters. In fact, it has also affected the natural reproduction of tea plants. Jingmai Mountain, located in Yunnan province, the ancient tea garden is a sacred mountain in the heart of local people. If the local tea farmers used the famous strategy of "prisoner's dilemma" for their personal benefit, the ancient tea forest would have long disappeared in history. Here, one can see that ancient tea trees and towering trees are intertwined. Mountains and villages, ancient tea houses, forests and tea farmers are integrated into a harmonious and unified world. People of all ethnic groups here grow tea trees, and every family goes hand in hand to protect natural environment. The ancient tea growing in the jungle of Jingmai Mountain grows on natural fertility, without any pollution, and has excellent quality, which has become a model of sustainable development for human and the society.

The Symbiotic Mechanism of the Influence of Productive and Transactional Agricultural Social Services on the Use of Soil Testing and Formula Fertilization Technology by Tea Farmers

In this investigation, we analyze data from 929 tea farmers across Shanxi, Sichuan, and Anhui provinces to elucidate the impact of productive and transactional agricultural social services on farmers’ adoption of soil testing and formula fertilization technology. Our perspective centers on the farmers’ standpoint and the underpinning mechanisms of these influences. Our findings delineate several key points: Both transactional and productive socialized services exert a positive influence on farmers’ decisions to adopt green production technologies, with the impact of productive socialized services being more pronounced than their transactional counterparts. The enthusiasm and the scale of adoption for green production technologies among farmers are positively impacted by both types of socialized services, a conclusion robust even when potential endogeneity and other statistical biases are corrected using IV Probit. The influence mechanism of transactional and productive social services operates symbiotically, primarily fostering trust, enhancing farmers’ tea price expectations and industry cognition, driving positive social evaluations, and motivating speculative behavior among farmers. Transactional and productive socialization services show varying propensities in promoting the adoption of soil testing and formula fertilization technology, depending on the farmers’ type, endowments, and income levels. Involvement in these agricultural socialization services enables farmers to bolster their income, improve technical proficiency and information-gathering capabilities, jointly participate in market competition, reduce market risks, and enhance their recognition and choice of green production technologies. This appears to be a crucial catalyst for the successful promotion of greener development and transformation within agriculture and rural areas.

Influence of Farmer Quality Attributes on Farmers’ Participation in Contract Farming in Tanzania’s Tea Subsector

This paper assesses how selected farmer quality indicators influence farmers’ participation in contract farming in Tanzania’s tea industry. A total of 393 smallholder tea farmers from three purposefully selected districts in the Mbeya and Njombe regions in the southern highlands of Tanzania participated in a cross-section survey that yielded the study’s primary data. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire with five-point scale questions. Binary logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the impact of the four farmer quality determinants on farmers’ participation in contract farming. The results show that farmers’ engagement in contract farming is significantly negatively affected by land access (B=-0.529, Wald value=4.931 and P<0.05). Access to farming equipment was found to have negatively influenced farmers’ engagement in contract farming (B=-0.21, Wald value=0.931 and P<0.30). Further results show that prior contract farming experience significantly positively affects tea farmers’ participation (B=0.551, Wald value=9.656 and P<0.05). Regression results indicate that farmers’ knowledge of the tea value chain seems to have a positive influence on farmers’ engagement in contract farming (B=0.27, Wald=1.757 p<0.20). These findings suggest that access to land and equipment negatively affects farmers’ contract farming participation. Thus, strategies and policies should focus on improving land access to overcome the challenges faced by farmers to engage in contract farming. Moreover, the enhancement of farmers’ access to farming equipment through subsidised programs, equipment rental schemes or cooperative initiatives is crucial. These measures contribute to enhanced and sustainable contract farming practices, thus benefiting both farmers and the tea subsector at large

Factors influencing the spatiotemporal variation in the value of ecosystem services in Anxi county

Understanding the value of ecosystem services is imperative for the welfare of current and future generations. Anxi town is situated within the mountainous terrain of Fujian province, China and characterized by a diverse range of ecosystems encompassing forests, rivers, and mountains. These ecosystems offer a wide range of ecosystem services. The value of ecosystem services has been declining in the county for the past twenty-years. However, limited is known on the spatial changes and factors affecting the value of these Therefore, current study assessed the spatial changes in the value of ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural) in 24 townships situated in the county for three time periods, i.e., 1999, 2009, and 2019 and factors affecting these services. The results revealed that annual decline in the value of ecosystem services was higher in 1999–2009 than 2009–2019. Longjuan, Xianghua, Gande, Futian, Changkeng, Xiping, Taozhou and Huqiu townships observed the highest annual decline in the value of ecosystem services ranging from 20.1 to 68.1 million yuan. The GWR model indicated that vegetation index had the highest impact on the value of ecosystem services in the county. Overall, the value of ecosystem services was negatively correlated with the urbanization rate and distance from the road with some exceptions, whereas altitude had a positive impact. All townships (except Xianghua, Futian, and Taozhou) had negative values for water supply services. Hence, water supply is a significant ecological issue in the county. It is concluded that tea farmers in the county should be educated about water and soil conservation, investment should be done in conservation measures, regional ecological environments should be protected, and ecological tea planting techniques should be developed in the county to halt further decrease in the value of ecosystem services.

Fertilizer Application in Contract Farming: A Risk Analysis

To our knowledge, this is the first study in the world to incorporate risk into the contract-farming participation decision process and to examine empirical evidence on the effect of contract farming on fertilizer application, filling the research gaps in the relevant literature and providing perspectives on both chemical fertilizer reduction and organic fertilizer application behavior. To estimate the impact of contract farming on farmers’ application of chemical fertilizer and organic fertilizer, we used data on tea farmers from the Fujian and Hubei provinces in China and the recursive binary probit model. The 2SLS (two-stage least-squares) model was used to estimate the impact of the contract-farming participation rate on farmers’ organic and chemical fertilizer application intensity. The empirical results show that farmers’ risk-prevention ability had a significant negative impact on farmers’ contract-farming participation decision and rates. Contract-farming participation had a significant, positive impact on farmers’ organic and chemical fertilizer application intensity, while contract-farming participation rates had a significant, negative impact on the intensity of chemical fertilizer application by farmers. However, contract-farming participation rates did not have a significant impact on organic and chemical fertilizer application intensity. To promote fertilizer reduction and organic fertilizer incremental application, an effective strategy could be to promote farmers’ participation in contract agriculture.