TD Method Research Articles

Open Microdiscectomy or Tubular Discectomy: What Is Better for Lumbar Disc Herniation

Introduction: Many different minimally invasive procedures can be used to treat lumbar disc herniation. In the management of lumbar disc herniation, Open microdiscectomy MD is the gold standard and is used as a benchmark for comparison with more recent techniques like tubular discectomy. The purpose of this study was to assess the complication rates of tubular discectomy and to compare the postoperative outcomes of individuals undergoing tubular discectomy with those undergoing MD. Material & Methods: A retrospective analysis of 250 patients who underwent single-level lumbar discectomy either by tubular TD or MD between JULY 2018- JUNE 2023 was performed. The differences in the 2 groups' demographics, surgical length, intraoperative blood loss, overall hospital stay, pain score on the visual analogue scale (VAS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) score both before and after the procedure, and complications were assessed. Results: Out of the 250 patients, 130 patients were treated with MD and 120 by tubular discectomy TD. The mean age in MD and tubular TD group was 45.5 and 45.8 years. There was a improvement in VAS and ODI scores at 4 weeks in both the groups. There was a greater reduction of back pain in the TD group at 2 weeks compared to MD group but at 1 month both are comparable. Average surgical time was shorter in MD (71.6 min) as compared to TD group (80.2 min). the Average blood loss was higher (90.2 mL) in MD group as compared to TD group (35.8 mL) (Table 3 ). Length of incision as measured from the surgical scar was 1.7 cm in TD while it was 3.0 cm in MD group. Average hospital length of stay in TD (1.2 days) which was less than MD group (2.1 days). Likewise, MD group patients took 5.9 weeks to return to activity which was higher than the TD group (4.1 weeks). There were 9 cases (6.9%) of dural tear in MD and 10 cases (8.3%) in TD group. Conclusion: Sciatica caused by disc herniation can be effectively and safely treated with lumbar discectomy, whether it is TD or MD. In comparison to MD, the TD method for treating symptomatic lumbar radiculopathy is superior in that it causes less postoperative back pain, less blood loss, a shorter hospital stay, and a quicker return to work. Despite the learning curve, TD has been demonstrated to be a viable choice for treating lumbar disc herniation in patients who are carefully chosen.

Insight into synthesis and characterisation of Ga0.9Fe2.1O4 superparamagnetic NPs for biomedical applications

A Ga3+-substituted spinel magnetite nanoparticles (NPs) with the formula Ga0.9Fe2.1O4 were synthesized using both the one-pot solvothermal decomposition method (TD) and the microwave-assisted heating method (MW). Stable colloidal solutions were obtained by using triethylene glycol, which served as a NPs stabilizer and as a reaction medium in both methods. A narrow size distribution of NPs, below 10 nm, was achieved through selected nucleation and growth. The composition, structure, morphology, and magnetic properties of the NPs were investigated using FTIR spectroscopy, thermal analysis (TA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and magnetic measurements. NPs with the expected spinel structure were obtained in the case of the TD method, while the MW method produced, additionally, an important amount of gallium suboxide. The NPs, especially those prepared by TD, have superparamagnetic behavior with 2.02 μB/f.u. at 300 K and 3.06 μB/f.u. at 4.2 K. For the MW sample these values are 0.5 μB/f.u. and 0.6 μB/f.u. at 300 K and 4.2 K, respectively. The MW prepared sample contains a secondary phase and very small NPs which affects both the dimensional distribution and the magnetic behavior of NPs. The NPs were tested in vitro on amniotic mesenchymal stem cells. It was shown that the cellular metabolism is active in the presence of Ga0.9Fe2.1O4 NPs and preserves an active biocompatible cytoskeleton.

Distributed TD(0) With Almost No Communication

We provide a new non-asymptotic analysis of distributed temporal difference learning with linear function approximation. Our approach relies on “one-shot averaging”, where N agents run identical local copies of the TD(0) method and average the outcomes only once at the very end. We demonstrate a version of the linear time speedup phenomenon, where the convergence time of the distributed process is a factor of N faster than the convergence time of TD(0). This is the first result proving benefits from parallelism for temporal difference methods.

Comparing Myocardial Shear Wave Propagation Velocity Estimation Methods Based on Tissue Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Data.

Shear wave elastography (SWE) is a promising technique used to assess cardiac function through the evaluation of cardiac stiffness non-invasively. However, in the literature, SWE varies in terms of tissue motion data (displacement, velocity or acceleration); method used to characterize mechanical wave propagation (time domain [TD] vs. frequency domain [FD]); and the metric reported (wave speed [WS], shear or Young's modulus). This variety of reported methodologies complicates comparison of reported findings and sheds doubt on which methodology better approximates the true myocardial properties. We therefore conducted a simulation study to investigate the accuracy of various SWE data analysis approaches while varying cardiac geometry and stiffness. Lower WS values were obtained by the TD method compared with the FD method. Acceleration-based WS estimates in the TD were systematically larger than those based on velocity (∼10% difference). These observations were confirmed by TD analysis of 32 in vivo SWE mechanical wave measurements. In vivo data quality is typically too low for accurate FD analysis. Therefore, our study suggests using acceleration-based TD analysis for in vivo SWE to minimize underestimation of the true WS and, thus, to maximize the sensitivity of SWE to detect stiffness changes resulting from pathology.

Thermodilution Cardiac Index Has Poor Agreement with That Measured by the Direct Fick Method in Low-Output States

<h3>Purpose</h3> The thermodilution (Td) method is routinely used for measurement of cardiac output although its accuracy in low-output states remains uncertain. Criteria for designating heart transplant listing status in the contemporary allocation system is incumbent on meeting strict cardiac index (CI) cutoffs. We aimed to assess the agreement between Td and direct Fick (dFick) CI in patients with low CI. <h3>Methods</h3> In this retrospective analysis of 535 patients who underwent right heart catheterization with dFick CI measurement as part of clinically indicated hemodynamic evaluation using the gold-standard Douglas bag technique, 253 patients had both Td/dFick CI measurements. Three saline injections were typically used and averaged in Td CI measurements. We included 118 patients who specifically had a CI of </= 2.2 L/min/m² by dFick method. Agreement between Td and dFick method was assessed by median absolute percentage difference, Spearman's rank correlation, and Bland-Altman Method. <h3>Results</h3> Among the 118 patients included (Mean [SD] age 60 [12.2] years, 42.3% female), Median (interquartile range, IQR) overall dFick and Td CI values differed significantly (1.86 [1.65, 2.1] and 2.03 [1.78, 2.31] L/min/m², respectively; P<0.001). The two measurements weakly correlated (r_s=0.31, P<0.001), with a systematic error introduced by Td CI expressed a mean difference of 0.21 (-0.61, 1.03) L/min/m² (Figure). Median (IQR) absolute percentage difference between Td and dFick was 16.9 (7.9, 27.9)%. Td and dFick CI's differed by >25% in 33.1% of patients. <h3>Conclusion</h3> The agreement of Td with the gold-standard dFick CI measurements in patients with low CI was suboptimal. These data are important consider in in clinical scenarios such as heart transplant listing status where strict hemodynamic cutoffs guide urgency.

Estimation of R0 for COVID-19 in India through different mathematical model and their comparison

Background: The cases of novel coronavirus (COVID- 2019)-infected pneumonia started since the 19th of December, 2019, in Wuhan (Central China). A large scale outbreak of the disease resulted in a pandemic. This outbreak of the COVID -19 disease has spread on a wide scale. World health organization (WHO) has identified the ongoing outbreak of corona virus disease (COVID 2019) as pandemic on 11 March 2020. Basic reproduction number (R0)- is one of the most important predictors of epidemic severity. It can help to understand the path of the epidemic and to assess the effectiveness of the various interventions to control the epidemic. The purpose of this study is to estimate R0 by using five methods based on the Indian COVID-19 dataset and compare them. Methods: We obtained data on daily confirmed, recovered and deaths cases from official site of ministry of health and family welfare. We implemented 5 mathematical methods to calculate R0. We estimated the number of active cases till 14th of April. We also compare these methods to find out the best method to predict R0.Results: The estimated R0 for the AR, EG, ML, TD, and gamma-distributed methods were 1.0004, 2.102, 1.895, 1.872 and 1.46 respectively. The computed R0 in the TD method is closer to the actual R0 and have a good fit on data as confirmed with MSE criterion.Conclusions: Awareness of the basic reproduction number of COVID-19 is useful for controlling the spread of disease and for planning. It is therefore necessary to know the best method that has better performance.

Decentralized TD(0) With Gradient Tracking

In this letter, we consider the policy evaluation problem with linear function approximation in the context of decentralized multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL), where the agents with a fixed joint policy cooperate to estimate the global expected accumulative reward through a decentralized communication network. In the existing algorithms, every agent updates its local parameter by combining its neighboring local parameters and then running a local stochastic temporal-difference(0) (TD(0)) gradient step. However, due to the diversity of reward functions across the agents, the local stochastic TD(0) gradients can be very different, which hinders the agents from reaching the consensual and optimal parameter. Motivated by the gradient tracking strategy in decentralized optimization, we combine gradient tracking with decentralized TD(0) to accelerate the process of reaching consensus. We also propose two other acceleration strategies, one is gradient consensus while another jointly uses gradient tracking and gradient consensus. Numerical experiments demonstrate that the proposed algorithms attain faster convergence than the popular decentralized TD(0) method.

Near-Field Scattering Prediction Based on Refined Time-Domain High-Frequency Method

The theoretical implementation aspects of near-field wideband electromagnetic (EM) scattering prediction based on refined time-domain physical optics (TDPO) and time-domain equivalent edge currents (TDEEC) integral are proposed in this letter. First, the closed-form expressions in far-field assumption of TDPO and TDEEC integrals are derived based on a Radon transform interpretation. Then, to solve the difficulties of the traditional TDPO and TDEEC in the near-field scattering computation, a refined integral representation is formulated. Afterward, by introducing the concept of the locally expanded approximations both in phase and amplitude, a more accurate expression of the Green function in frequency domain and time domain is developed. In this way, the near-field versions of TDPO and TDEEC are proposed to predict the scattered EM field of electronically large target in the near-field zone while retaining the simplicity of the conventional forms. The validity and applicability of the proposed refined TD method in near-field calculation are demonstrated by some numerical examples in the last part.

Comparison of methods to Estimate Basic Reproduction Number (R 0) of influenza, Using Canada 2009 and 2017-18 A (H1N1) Data.

Background:The basic reproduction number (R0) has a key role in epidemics and can be utilized for preventing epidemics. In this study, different methods are used for estimating R0's and their vaccination coverage to find the formula with the best performance.Materials and Methods:We estimated R0 for cumulative cases count data from April 18 to July 6, 2009 and 35-2017 to 34-2018 weeks in Canada: maximum likelihood (ML), exponential growth rate (EG), time-dependent reproduction numbers (TD), attack rate (AR), gamma-distributed generation time (GT), and the final size of the epidemic. Gamma distribution with mean and standard deviation 3.6 ± 1.4 is used as GT.Results:The AR method obtained a R0 (95% confidence interval [CI]) value of 1.116 (1.1163, 1.1165) and an EG (95%CI) value of 1.46 (1.41, 1.52). The R0 (95%CI) estimate was 1.42 (1.27, 1.57) for the obtained ML, 1.71 (1.12, 2.03) for the obtained TD, 1.49 (1.0, 1.97) for the gamma-distributed GT, and 1.00 (0.91, 1.09) for the final size of the epidemic. The minimum and maximum vaccination coverage were related to AR and TD methods, respectively, where the TD method has minimum mean squared error (MSE). Finally, the R0 (95%CI) for 2018 data was 1.52 (1.11, 1.94) by TD method, and vaccination coverage was estimated as 34.2%.Conclusion:For the purposes of our study, the estimation of TD was the most useful tool for computing the R0, because it has the minimum MSE. The estimation R0 > 1 indicating that the epidemic has occurred. Thus, it is required to vaccinate at least 41.5% to prevent and control the next epidemic.

Thermal image enhancement through the deconvolution methods for low-cost infrared cameras

An infrared (IR) thermal camera may provide a tool for real-time temperature monitoring for precise disease treatment using heat generated by light-induced photosensitisers, i.e. photothermal/ablation therapies. In this work, we quantitatively demonstrated that the spatial resolution of a low-cost low-resolution IR camera could be improved via two deconvolution methods. The camera point spread function was modelled experimentally and used to develop the deconvolution methods: (1) Richardson–Lucy blind deconvolution (BD); and (2) total variation constrained deconvolution (TD). The experimental results showed the improved spatial resolution (at 50% modulation transfer function: from the original 1.1 to 2.6 cycles/mm for the BD method and to 4.8 cycles/mm for the TD method) as well as contrast-to-noise ratio. With a properly chosen parameter, the TD method can resolve 1-mm size objects with the accurate temperature reading. The thermal image from the low-resolution IR camera enhanced by the TD method is comparable to that from a high-resolution IR camera. These results show that the TD method provides an effective way to improve the thermal image quality from a low-cost IR camera to monitor temperature of an object of 1-mm size, which meets the needed precision for advanced laser scanning protocols in photothermal/ablation therapies.

Effect of methyl substituents on the electronic transitions in simple meso-aniline-BODIPY based dyes: RI-CC2 and TD-CAM-B3LYP computational investigation

The S0→Si, i=1–5 electronic transitions of four 8-(4-aniline)-BODIPY and four 8-(N,N-dimethyl)-BODIPY dyes, differ by number and position of methyl substituents in the BODIPY frame, were investigated theoretically using ab initio the coupled cluster doubles (CC2) and TD-CAM-B3LYP methods. Methyl substituents in the BODIPY frame and the aniline fragment at the meso position disturb energy of local excitations S0→S1, S0→S3, and S0→S4 weakly in comparison with the fully unsubstituted BODIPY molecule. These transitions in experimental spectra form the most long-wave absorption bands at ca. 500nm as well as absorption bands in the region of 300–400nm. At the same time, the presence of aniline fragments leads to the appearance of new S0→S2 transitions of the charge transfer character in electronic spectra of BODIPYs. We also found a linear relationship between vertical energy of these charge transfer transitions and the electron donating power of an aniline fragment and electron accepting power of the BODIPY core depending on the number and position of methyl groups. The CC2 method provides the best overall description of the excitation energies in line with the experimental observations. On average, the quality of TD-CAM-B3LYP is almost equal to that of CC2, however the TD method with the CAM-B3LYP functional slightly underestimates the CT excitation energy.

Rapid Quantification of N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone in Polymer Matrices by Thermal Desorption-GC/MS.

Analysis of a residual solvent in polymeric materials has become an important issue due to the increased regulations and standards for its use. N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) is a solvent widely used in many industries and restricted as one of the chemicals under EU REACH regulations due to its potential harmful effects. In this study, thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (TD-GC/MS) is applied for the quantitative analysis of NMP with the use of a polymer-coated sample cup. By using the polymer-coated sample cup, the vaporization of NMP was prevented during waiting time before TD-GC/MS analysis. The calibration curve for the TD method showed good linearity (correlation coefficient, r2 = 0.9998) and precision values (below 5.3% RSD). NMP recovery rates in different polymer matrices (PS, PMMA and PVC) were in the range of 98.8 to 106.6% with RSD values below 5.0%. The quantification result (600 mg NMP/kg PVC) for the blind NMP carrying sample in a PVC matrix by TD-GC/MS was higher than that (532 mg NMP/kg PVC) by solvent extraction-GC/MS method.

Thermal desorption—Gas chromatographic methodology for the determination of residual solvents in mesoporous silica

In this work, thermal desorption-gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (TD-GC-FID) was adapted to enable the determination of residual solvents (RS) in mesoporous silica (MPSi). MPSi is often utilized in various pharmaceutical formulations or drug delivery systems and the accurate determination of RS is an important part of pharmaceutical quality control. Seven commonly used solvents (methanol, ethanol, acetone, isopropanol, dichloromethane, tetrahydrofuran and hexafluoroisopropanol) were evaluated in combination with 3 types of MPSi having pore sizes of 2–3, 15 and 25nm. Validation results showed general recovery values >98% and good linearity over the concentration ranges studied. The limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) for the different solvents ranged from 0.03 to 0.08μg and from 0.1 to 0.2μg per tube, respectively. Verification of the accuracy of the TD method was investigated by using an alternative method based on complete dissolution of MPSi in hydrofluoric acid (HF) followed by full evaporation headspace-GC (HS-GC). The results obtained from both procedures were not statistically different (p>0.05) when applied to actual experimental drug samples consisting of itraconazole loaded on MPSi.

Design and Characterization of High-Performance Electrodes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) have attracted much attention recently due to its potential as a cost-effective alternative for silicon-based solar cells. Three major components are involved to make a highly efficient DSSC: a working electrode containing dye-sensitized nanostructured TiO2 layers, a counter electrode containing platinum-coated TCO substrate, and a composite electrolyte solution to fill between the two electrodes. In this lecture, I will present our recent developments on novel electrodes for highly efficient DSSC. For the counter electrodes, novel platinum nanostructures were fabricated according to a cyclic electro-deposition (CED) method for the Pt films with uniform nanograss structure having great electro-catalytic performance and intrinsic light-scattering, perfectly suitable for use as counter electrodes for DSSC. we have developed a strategy of nanofabrication to prepare monolayers of platinum nanoparticles self-assembled on a rough surface of TCO in two steps: first, preparation of a well dispersed Pt NP solution from polyol reduction at a pH well controlled on adding NaOH; second, dipping the SAM-functionalized TCO substrate, prepared beforehand using ‘piranha’ and MPTMS surface treatments in turn, into the Pt NP solution near 295 K to complete the fabrication of the SAM-Pt CE for DSSC. The uniform SAM-Pt film with a narrow distribution of size can be produced on TCO without a stabilizer, so that the traditional thermal treatment at high temperatures is no longer necessary. The uniform nature of the SAM-Pt film has the advantages of minimizing the amounts of Pt loading and optimizing the catalytic function on the TCO surface. The DSSC devices prepared according to this SAM-Pt approach attained notable photovoltaic performance (η = 9.2 %) comparable to those fabricated with a conventional TD method (η = 9.1 %) or a CED method (η = 9.3 %) under the same experimental conditions. For the working electrodes, we constructed photoanodes, containing titania nanostructures of varied types – spherical nanoparticles (NP), one-dimensional nanorods (NR), and octahedron-like nanocrystals of varied size (HD1-HD3), in either a bi-layer (BL) or a multi-layer (ML) film configuration. The ML devices were fabricated based on the NP-BL system with additional HDP layers inserted between the two components, NP and SL, to enhance J SC so as to attain the best performance, with efficiency of power conversion (PCE) = 10.1 %, at film thickness (L) 26 mm. Because of the robust structural feature of the HD films, the devices fabricated with a simple BL film configuration, HD1/SL = 6/3, exhibited the best performance, PCE = 10.2 % at L = 29 mm, which is a promising advance for Z907-based solar cells with a superior and enduring stability of performance for commercialization.

Parallel analysis of volatile fatty acids, indole, skatole, phenol, and trimethylamine from waste-related source environments

An experimental technique based on sorbent tube–thermal desorption–gas chromatography (ST–TD–GC) was investigated for the simultaneous determination of a cluster of eight volatile odorants (propionic acid, n-butyric acid, i-valeric acid, n-valeric acid, trimethylamine, phenol, indole, and skatole) and a reference compound (benzene). Calibration was made by direct injection of a liquid working standard (L-WS) into a quartz tube packed with three bed sorbent (Tenax TA, Carbopack B, and Carbopack X). To assess the relative performance between different detector systems, a comparative analysis was made using both mass spectrometry (MS) and a flame ionization detector (FID) with the aid of a TD system. In the TD–GC–MS analysis, calibration results were evaluated in two different modes, namely total ion chromatogram (TIC) and extracted ion chromatogram (EIC). In both FID and MS, the elution order of investigated odorants complied with the retention time index (RTI) values for the polar column with a coefficient of determination (R2) at or above 0.99. As a means to validate our detection approach, environmental samples from a bathroom and manhole (vacuum samples) as well as cat stool and wastewater (headspace samples) were also collected. The ST–TD method tested for the concurrent analysis of diverse odorants allowed us to measure a list of offensive odorants from those samples.

Why Sweden’s Notional DC Pension System Needs a Calculation Correction

This article reviews the reform of the Swedish state pension and identifies a calculation problem: the use of “turnover duration” (TD) to calculate the Notional DC system’s balance-sheet assets. This practice produces varying and inaccurate results, favoring pensioners and placing an additional burden on contributors and on subsequent generations that will contribute. The author proposes the calculation of balance-sheet assets using the concept of a Future Commitment Asset (FCA), the wealth that must be transferred by future cohorts to keep the system operating. An analysis using the TD and FCA approaches in a simple model demonstrates that the FCA method provides accurate results whereas the TD method produces some peculiar ones. The FCA method is as simple to use in practice as the TD method. See critique by Ole Settergren (following article).

A Comparison of Two Flashcard Drill Methods Targeting Word Recognition

Traditional drill and practice (TD) and incremental rehearsal (IR) are two flashcard drill instructional methods previously noted to improve word recognition. The current study sought to compare the effectiveness and efficiency of these two methods, as assessed by next day retention assessments, under 2 conditions (i.e., opportunities to respond held constant across methods, length of instructional session held constant across methods) with 4 first-grade students identified by their teachers as struggling readers. Social validity of the two intervention methods also was evaluated. Results suggested important differences in response to instruction across students. Differences in effectiveness between TD and IR were minimal both when holding opportunities to respond and length of instructional session constant across methods. Minimal differences in efficiency were noted between TD and IR when holding instructional time constant across conditions. However, TD was clearly more efficient than IR for all students when holding opportunities to respond constant across conditions. Social validity data indicated that half of the students preferred the TD method and half preferred the IR method. Limitations and implications of the current study for school-based professionals are discussed.

Right ventricular function evaluated by thermodilution method in patients with chronic pulmonary diseases

The right ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF) is an objective evaluation of the right ventricular systolic function. Recently a rapid-response thermister pulmonary artery catheter which measures RVEF and stroke volume (SV) was introduced. With this new method, RVEF and the right ventricular volumes (RVV) were measured in patients with chronic pulmonary diseases (CPD) and normal subjects. In addition, to evaluate the validity of this method, the data was compared with Kr81m perfusion method. The RVEF and the RVV of CPD patients were also compared with pulmonary hemodynamic data. There was a good correlation between the RVEFs obtained by the Kr81m perfusion method and the TD method. (r = 0.71, p less than 0.001). There was a tendency towards a low RVEF in patient with CPD with pulmonary hypertension (PAm greater than 20 mmHg) or high pulmonary vascular resistance (PAR greater than 160 dyne/sec/cm-5) and the RVV increased in the same group. These results suggested that the right ventricle was unable to respond to the increase of afterload in the CPD group and the evaluation of RVEF and RVV in patients with CPD using the new TD method was valuable for assessing the right ventricular function.

Estimation of soil boundary-layer resistance in sparse semiarid stands for evapotranspiration modelling

Summary The aim of this work was first, to compare two methods for obtaining soil boundary-layer resistance, one based on the turbulent diffusion theory (TD) and another based on the energy balance of heated and unheated sensors (EB), and secondly, to analyse how the results obtained from both methods are affected by canopy structure parameters in typical sparse vegetation. The study was carried out in stands of three different species characteristic of the semiarid South East of Spain ( Retama sphaerocarpa , Anthyllis cytisoides and Stipa tenacissima ). Comparison of the two methods showed that EB boundary-layer resistances, unlike TD, implicitly considers the peculiarities of the plant architecture and structure, as well as its distribution in the field and the presence or absence of substrate under the canopies. In contrast, for the TD method, quantitative attributes of the vegetation (average vegetation height, h , leaf area index, L , fractional vegetative cover, f , drag coefficient, c d and the eddy diffusivity decay constant, n ) are necessary, which are not only sometimes difficult to obtain in the field, but also seem to be insufficient to explain the development of the soil boundary layer in sparse semiarid vegetation. The advantages of using the EB method are both practical and theoretical. Positioning of the sensors and data storage with automatic data loggers is easy, and does not require knowledge of the aerodynamic attributes of the vegetated area. Furthermore, it allows qualitative interpretation of the effect of non-transpirable vegetative elements, as well as the architecture of the vegetation and its distribution in the field, neither of which are considered in the turbulent diffusion theory.

Low-complexity Cole-Cole expression for modelling human biological tissues in (FD) 2 TD method

It is always crucial to have an accurate human tissue model for bio-electromagnetic analysis by using the frequency-dependent finite-difference time-domain ((FD)2TD) method. A new approach is proposed that constructs a new Debye-type equation to perform the Cole-Cole dispersion in the (FD)2TD method. The proposed approach is extremely flexible and promising in representing different human tissues, and the same strategy can be applied to different frequency spectra. The proposed equation provides precise outcomes, but requires only a simple implementation. The results obtained can be found to be particularly important in analysing the interaction between electromagnetic waves and human biological tissues.