Taxodium Ascendens Research Articles

Ecological–economic evaluation of wetland management alternatives

A heavily impacted wetland in Jackson County, FL, USA was selected for this study. Several approaches involving different perspectives were initiated to postulate and test possible mechanisms of transport and transformation of Pb in the wetland environment. A macroscopic system analysis was conducted as well to evaluate the benefits of wetland ecosystem restoration. Microcosms containing cypress (Taxodium ascendens) and black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) seedlings were used as a wetland surrogate to assess the ecological effects of Pb and acidity on the wetland community. Three wetland management alternatives were proposed. These included land control, sediment excavation, and wetland restoration by replanting. An `emergy'-based ecological–economic evaluation revealed that restoration of the wetland was the most beneficial option, with a net benefit of 15.2×10 1 7 and 57.4×10 1 7 solar emjoules (sej) for 20- and 62-year recovery times, respectively. The net benefit of this alternative is calculated to be $756 000 and $2 870 000 for the 20- and 62-year recovery periods, respectively, based on macroeconomic values for the US economy in 1990 of 2.0×10 1 2 sej/$.

Estimation of rainfall storage capacity in the canopies of cypress wetlands and slash pine uplands in North-Central Florida

The specific water retention capacities (SWRC) on the surfaces of canopy elements (leaves, branches and stems) were measured for dominant species and scaled up to the canopy level in cypress ( Taxodium ascendens) wetlands and slash pine ( Pinus elliottii) uplands in Florida flatwoods. The SWRC of foliage of pine, cypress and black gum ( Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora) was about 0.04 mm with no significant difference among species. The SWRC of branches and stems increased linearly with diameter for all three dominant tree species. For a given diameter, cypress branches and stems had the highest SWRC, followed by slash pine and black gum. The retention capacity of wetlands (average 0.94 mm) was about twice that of uplands (average 0.43 mm). The water retention capacity of wetlands demonstrated higher seasonal variability than that of pine uplands due to the higher seasonal variability of leaf area index in the wetlands.

Influence of different Taxodium ascendens stands on the open ranges and system performance in Jiangsu Province, China

This paper reveals the results of an eight-year experiment set up to identify the effects of four tree spacing configurations (1.5 × 4 m, 1.2 × 5 m, 2 × 3 m and 1.5 × 2 × 6 m) on open ranges and the relationship between open ranges and species coexistence in Taxodium ascendens-intercrop systems. Relative interrow open ranges and relative interplant open ranges were significantly different among four tree spacings. All relative open ranges (relative interrow open ranges, relative interplant open ranges, relative canopy open ranges and relative space-volumed open ranges) decreased with increasing age. The wider interrow or interplant spacings of trees offered wider (relative) interrow or interplant open ranges for intercrops. All of the tree spacings, except spacing 2 × 3 m, had negative relative interplant open ranges in nine-year-old stands, suggesting that the canopies between a plant and its neighbouring plant were in direct competition, and no interplant open range existed between two individual trees. Up to age nine, spacing 1.5 × 2 × 6 m showed no marked disadvantage in growth performance as compared to the other three spacings, but provided wider interrow open ranges for intercrops. Starting with tree stands of age four years, the yields of interplanted wheat (Triticum aestivum), soybean (Glyciae max) and rape (Brassica napus) decreased significantly as a result of the decrease of open ranges in tree stands. The yields of wheat, soybean and rape were lower in tree spacing 2 × 3 m than in other spacings. There was a positive correlation between wheat yields and canopy open ranges.

Leaf litterfall, leaf area index, and radiation transmittance in cypress wetlands and slash pine plantations in north-central Florida

The seasonal dynamics of leaf litterfall and leaf area index (LAI, all-sided basis), light penetration and the vertical distribution of surface area index, and the feasibility of estimating LAI from radiation transmittance were studied from April 1993 to March 1994 in the canopies of three cypress (Taxodium ascendens) wetlands and their surrounding slash pine (Pinus elliottii) uplands in Florida flatwoods. Annual leaf litterfall ranged from 324 to 359 g m−2 in the wetlands, which was very close to the average for 11 sites throughout Florida of 340±26 g m−2. The seasonal pattern of the normalized LAI obtained for the dominant tree species in the ecosystems could be used to construct the seasonal dynamics of LAI at the ecosystem scale. The vertical distribution of surface area index in the wetlands was significantly different from that in the surrounding pine uplands. The maximum LAI of cypress wetlands in this area was about 8 m2 m−2, which was higher than the maximum of slash pine plantations of 6 m2 m−2. Cypress leaves were strongly erectophile in space. Results showed that the LAI-2000 canopy analyzer could generally be used to estimate forest LAI, whether the forest canopy was closed or not, if an overall clumping index of 2.00 was applied. However, as LAI decreased, the relative error contained in the radiation-based LAI estimates increased. This indicated that foliage clumping at the stand scale was more important than that at the tree or branch scale.

Responses of Wetland Tree Species to Hydrology and Soils

AbstractWe conducted a study of the flood tolerance of nine wetland tree species on seven soil types. Seedlings were subjected to 11 months of continuous shallow inundation or moist soil conditions on three mineral soils, two organic soils, a manufactured soil designed to mimic the practice of layering muck over mineral soil, and a stockpiled topsoil. Taxodium ascendens, T. distichum, Acer rubrum, and Pinus serotina suffered no mortality; Fraxinus carolininna (1%), Liquidambar styraciflua (8%), P. elliottii (8%), and Gordonia lasianthus (24%) suffered low to moderate mortality; and Persea palustris (46%) suffered significant mortality. In general, greatest net height and total biomass were achieved on moist organic soils, and least net height and total biomass were achieved on stockpiled topsoil and inundated soils. Responses to hydrological conditions were less pronounced for Taxodium spp. If the results of this experiment are transferable to the field, then Acer rubrum, Fraxinus caroliniana, Pinus serotina, Taxodium ascendens, and Taxodium distichum seedlings can reasonably be expected to survive at least one year under a broad range of hydrological and edaphic conditions. With the exception of Taxodium spp., first‐year growth for the species of this study can be facilitated by maintaining moist but not inundated conditions. These findings suggest that transfer of organic soils will benefit restoration and creation efforts, and that layering organic soil over mineral soil is more effective than using mineral soils or stockpiled topsoil.

Horizontal Groundwater Flow Patterns Through a Cypress Swamp‐Pine Flatwoods Landscape

AbstractGroundwater movement in the surficial aquifer of the lower Coastal Plain cypress swamp‐pine flatwoods landscape of the southeastern USA is poorly documented. This study was conducted to define the patterns of horizontal groundwater flow through a typical landscape with particular attention to water exchange between cypress swamps and the surrounding areas. One hundred and twenty shallow water table wells 1 m deep were installed in a 42‐ha study area, one‐third of which was covered by pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens Brongn.) swamps. Water tables were measured approximately every 2 wk for 2 yr and the data were used to map water table elevation. Directions of horizontal groundwater flow were inferred from the water table topographic maps. Measured hydraulic heads were combined with saturated hydraulic conductivities to estimate groundwater flux. Most of the groundwater flowed through the swamps in response to the generalized surface elevation pattern. For selected ponds, the ground‐water also flowed from the swamps to the surrounding areas. It was uncommon for groundwater to flow into the ponds from the entire surrounding area. The pattern of groundwater exchange between the swamps and the surrounding area was related to the average water table depth: the deeper the average water table, the greater chance for groundwater to flow from the swamp into the surrounding area. Waterflow rates were estimated to be <56 cm d−1. These groundwater flow patterns are different from the generally accepted pattern of water flow and should be useful in defining the hydrologic cycle of these landscapes.

The ecology, status, and conservation of two non-alluvial wetland communities in the South Atlantic and Eastern Gulf coastal plain, USA

The existence and integrity of the majority of southern Atlantic and eastern Gulf coastal plain non-alluvial wetlands (and the plant and animal species dependent on these communities) are critically threatened. Federal efforts and public interest have concentrated on the protection of coastal wetlands and riverine bottomlands, but many other coastal plain wetland communities are declining rapidly. Among these threatened natural communities are non-alluvial systems such as pond cypress Taxodium ascendens savannas, karst ponds, coastal plain small depression ponds, longleaf pine Pinus palustris savannas, and pocosins. We estimate that more than a third of the rare plant species in the Southeast occur in these wetland communities. The threats to these isolated wetland communities are numerous, from local site specific threats including drainage and development to threats to the regional hydrology. In this paper we present an overview of the non-alluvial wetlands in the southern Atlantic and eastern Gulf coastal plain and focus on two of the most threatened non-alluvial wetland communities in the region, pond cypress savannas and karst ponds.

Iron Oxidation at the Surfaces of Slash Pine Roots from Saturated Soils

AbstractRoot aeration in saturated gleyed soils is indicated by Fe oxide coatings on live‐root surfaces. Oxygen diffusing through gas‐permeable tissues, from the atmosphere to submerged roots, ultimately diffuses into and oxidizes the rhizosphere. The objectives of this study were to: (i) characterize the oxidizing conditions of slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm. var. elliottii) roots growing in saturated conditions, and (ii) test the hypothesis that submerged taproot systems are internally aerated. One study examined Fe‐oxide deposits on the roots of six saplings grown outdoors in drums filled with saturated, Fe‐amended peat. Another study examined roots of two mature slash pines growing naturally on a poorly drained Paleaquult. Orange Fe‐oxide precipitates coasted cortical tissue of sapling taproots and root branches growing in saturated peat. Iron concentrations in these roots were 6 to 96 times greater than in the surrounding peat. In gleyed horizons of the Paleaquult, Fe‐rich precipitates cemented sand to the surfaces of large‐diameter roots and entirely ensheathed fine roots of pine and pine cypress (Taxodium ascendens Brogn.). Prominent mottles, all neoferrans, surrounded fine pores, remnants of decayed‐root channels. Despite the anoxic growing conditions, all of the examined slash pine root systems oxidized and accumulated Fe, supporting other evidence that the taproot systems of slash pine growing in wet soils are internally aerated.

Nitrogen Fixation (Acetylene Reduction) Associated with Decaying Leaves of Pond Cypress ( Taxodium distichum var. nutans ) in a Natural and a Sewage-Enriched Cypress Dome

Surface litter from a natural and a sewage-enriched cypress dome in north-central Florida showed a pronounced seasonal pattern of nitrogenase (acetylene reduction) activity associated with seasonal leaf fall from deciduous trees in the domes. Samples of peat from cores indicated negligible nitrogenase activity below the surface layer. Integrating the monthly rates of nitrogen fixation (based on the theoretical molar ratio of 3:2 for C(2)H(4)/NH(3)) yielded 0.39 and 0.12 g of N/m per year fixed in the litter of the natural and sewage-enriched domes, respectively. The nitrogen fixed in the first 3 months after leaf fall in the natural dome represented about 14% of the nitrogen increment in the decomposing cypress leaves, but fixation contributed a negligible amount of nitrogen (<1%) to decomposing litter in the sewage-enriched dome.

Elemental Composition of Epiphytic Lichens from Okefenokee Swamp

Elemental Composition of Epiphytic Lichens from Okefenokee Swamp

Red-Cockaded Woodpecker Fall Movements in a Florida Flatwoods Community

-Four Red-cockaded Woodpeckers from three were radio tracked for 128 hours from October to December 1975 in a pine flatwood community in central Florida. Radio telemetry equipment proved valuable for obtaining data on daily movements, behavior, and range size over a complete dawn to dusk tracking period. The average range of 69.8 ha (172.3 acres) was larger than most previously reported ranges. Foraging was most frequent in pine habitat; longleaf and slashed pine were the main species utilized. The roosting area itself was used as a foraging site only during rainy weather. Based on this study a minimum of 58-91 ha of suitable foraging habitat are necessary to support of 3-4 Red-cockaded Woodpeckers during fall in a pine community.-Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Wildlife Management Laboratory, 4005 S. Main Street, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Accepted 13 October 1976. Survival of the Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis) within its natural range, the pine woods of the southeastern United States, is uncertain under present day commercial forestry practices. Concern for the future of the species is evident from the endangered status given it by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1973). This study to determine critical habitat requirements for the woodpecker in central Florida was undertaken as part of an overall assessment of the impact on wildlife of the proposed Cross Florida Barge Canal. The use of radio telemetry equipment was authorized under interim authority granted by the Office of Endangered Species, U.S. Department of Interior pending final disposition of the applications. When initiated, the intention was to carry out the study more fully than reported here. Final approval for the use of radio telemetry equipment was denied and restrictions were placed on the number of birds that could be color marked. As a consequence, the study was curtailed. To our knowledge this is the first study to employ radio telemetry techniques to study the Red-cockaded Woodpecker. For this reason and because any new information on a species as sensitive as this woodpecker would be important in making sound management decisions related to the species, it seems appropriate to present the results of this study here. STUDY AREA AND METHODS Three clans (Jackson and Thompson 1971) of the Red-cockaded Woodpeckers were studied during the fall of 1975 in Marion County, Florida, about 7 km south of Eureka and 1 km west of the Oklawaha River. The habitat of the area consisted of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) on the higher sites, characterized by an overstory, principally longleaf pine between 50 and 80 years old and 21-25 m tall. This habitat graded to slash pine (Pinus elliottii) or pond pine (Pinus serotina) on the lower, wetter sites. Bayheads occurred on the lowest, wettest sites and long streams with an overstory of loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), sweet bay (Magnolia virginiana), red maple (Acer rubrum), and black gum (Nyssa sylvatica). Scattered throughout the area were several intermittent flatwoods ponds bordered by bay and pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens). Also within the study area were improved pastures, four recent timber clear cuts, and a 10-15-year-old slash pine plantation with an open understory of wire grass (Aristida stricta) and gallberry (Ilex glabra). Figure 1 is a general habitat map of the three ranges. 145 The Auk 95: 145-151. January 1978 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.138 on Thu, 19 May 2016 04:35:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 146 NESBITT ET AL. [Auk, Vol. 95 X A E LONGLEAF PINE FLATWOODS N [j` SLASH-POND PINE FLATWOODS o0oo000 L..J BAYHEADS, PONDS, CYPRESS DOMES

The Nutritional Status of Encyclia tampense and Tillandsia circinata on Taxodium ascendens and the Availability of Nutrients to Epiphytes on this Host in South Florida

The Nutritional Status of Encyclia tampense and Tillandsia circinata on Taxodium ascendens and the Availability of Nutrients to Epiphytes on this Host in South Florida

Ecological Consideration of Cypress Heads in Northcentral Florida

Cypress heads are symmetrical domes of variable sizes in which pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens), black gum (Nyssa biflora), slash (Pinus elliottii), red maple (Acer rubrum), and wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) are the more important tree species. Vegetation and soil data were collected from 15 such stands in northcentral Florida in an effort to characterize this vegetation type. Interstand floristic variation was found to be partially related to depth of maximum flooding, calcium, potassium, and pH. Soil from four additional stands was sampled along two radii extending from the center to the edge of the dome. Potassium, organic matter, and clay definitely increased toward the center, while calcium and magnesium exhibited a slight increase toward the center. Soil pH decreased from edge to center. INTRODUCTION Throughout the flatwoods regions of the southern Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, certain conspicuous stands of vegetation break the level horizon of the pine-palmetto woodlands. These are groups of closely spaced trees varying in area from one to several hundred acres. The most striking aspect of these stands is that in silhouette they have a smoothly symmetrical dome-like shape. They are high in the center and round off at the sides as if the trees had all been carefully pruned to conform to some geometric plan. These stands are called cypress heads or domes and have attracted a great deal of attention; first because of their unusual appearance, and later because of some of their less obvious characteristics. Among the first of the early writers who described some features of cypress heads, was John Bartram (1769). He mentions ponds where the water was about knee-deep, more or less, some of which contained from 1 to 10 acres; but some ponds are a mile or two big, more or less, some surrounded close with the adjacent pinelands, and others with large savannahs at one or both sides, with a rivulet running out, and sometimes with a bay or cypress swamp at the head. Williams (1827) wrote of pine barren swamps which are natural basins containing the waters of the surrounding country. These swamps, when covered with small coast cypress trees and knees, are usually, but improperly termed cypress galls. He also describes cypress knees and the swollen base of the tree which . . grows up straight, and the cone gradually swells out underneath it, as high as the highest stage of the water. 1 Present address: Botany Department, University of Georgia and Laboratory of Radiation Ecology, Bldg. 772-G, Aiken, South Carolina. 2 Present address: Department of Zoology, University of California, Los Angeles.

Wood as a Substratum for Perennial Plants in the Southeast

The forests of the Coastal Plain, with their high rainfall and long growing seasons, provide many unique places where seeds may find a favorable habitat in which to germinate. Seed plants ordinarily terrestrial have been found rooting in fallen logs, sawed stumps, natural stumps or snags left by fire, trees killed by lightning, dead tops or stag-heads, dead cypress knees, and in chopped turpentine boxes. Numerous interesting photographs and detailed observations have been obltained during the last two years' field experience in the Coastal Plain of Georgia. At least nine species of perennial herbs, ten shrubs, and five kinds of trees have been observed to have started growing in dead wood. A list of these wood-dwelling perennials is given in Table 1, together with an indication as to their reproductive success and commonness in this habitat. Further observation would doubtless add other species to the list. No cryptogams are included. A few perennials found growing in wood in certain parts of North Carolina are reported separately in Table 2. Various seed plants have been observed growing on wood in northern Florida also. At least half of these species finally reached the fruiting stage. By the time these plants are large enough to reproduce, they have root systems well established in the decayed wood in which they are growing, and those growing in low stumps or logs will have extended their roots through the rotten wood into the mineral soil beneath. In one example, however, a gallberry bush (llex glabra) was found growing in some dead wood high in the top of a living longleaf pine. The roots of this plant penetrated the dead wood in an irregular cavity left by the breaking away of a large limb. Thus the bush was growing and fruiting 50 feet above the ground. Other shrubs have been seen in the tops of dead trunks 30 or 40 feet tall. In Figure 1 the natural stump was about seven feet tall. A slash pine tree about 18 inches tall was found growing in a floating log in a pond, obviously without roots in mineral soil. Stumps of any kind frequently harbor these terrestrials. Figures 2 and 3 are photographs of sawed stumps 3.0 and 2.5 feet tall, respectively. Figure 4 is probably a natural stump although this could not be ascertained with certainty. Figure 5 is doubtless a natural stump. Dead knees of pond bald cypress (Taxodium ascendens Brongniart) sometimes provide a temporary substratum for land plants in the swamps and, of course, the live knees frequently are superficially inhabited by the more simple and primitive members of the plant kingdom. Where these dead knees occur surrounded by water there are no other places for a land plant to grow. Turpentine boxes provide another type of niche in which seed plants

Cypress‐Gum Communities in the Blue Girth Swamp Near Selma, Alabama

Cypress-gum forests are common along the seaward margin of the Coastal Plain from Texas to Virginia. In addition, there are numerous stands in the low backhands of many of the streams in the interior of the southeastern states (Coulter, '04). Throughout the broad alluvial valleys these swamp forests are usually composed of bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) 2 and tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica), whereas in pineland ponds they include pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens) and swamp black gum (Nyssa biflora) as the predominant species. In the shallow swampy areas of the lower portion of the Gulf Coastal Plain, slash pine (Pinus caribaea) may be an important associate of pond cypress and swamp black gum. Each of these five swampland species has been observed in pure stand. In some areas these species may occur as companion species, especially where pineland streams flow into broad river valleys. The tupelo gum-cypress-swamp black gum and the tupelo gum-cypress forests investigated have been designated as variants of Cover Types Numbers 94 and 95 by the committee on forest types of the Society of American Foresters (Hawley, R. C. et al, '40). The following species have been listed as common associates: red maple (Rufacer drummondii), planer tree (Planera aquatica), pumpkin ash (Fraxinus profunda), water ash (Fraxinus caroliniana), and black gum (Nyssa sylvatica). These forests are of much importance economically since they yield timber crops on annually flooded soils in addition to harboring some of the most valuable and interesting animals indigenous to southern United States. The stands herein reported are located in the Blue Girth Swamp in Dallas County, Alabama. This swamp is approximately 5 miles east of Selma and is in communication with the Alabama River 4 miles southwest of where the swamp is crossed by State Highway Number 14. The swamp is accessible by numerous field roads, the Southern Railroad, and a cable suspension bridge. Each of these approaches lies to the north of State Highway Number 14 (fig. 1). Blue Girth Swamp lies in an elongated basin which is approximately 10 miles in length and averages about one-third of a mile in width. MiVost of the surrounding terrain is under cultivation, the major crops being cotton, corn, and peanuts. The swamp is spring-fed and possesses a nearly continuous hydroperiod. The average annual fluctuation during normal stream flow approximates 3 feet. Following excessive precipitation during April, 1938, the Alabama River experienced a rise of some 10 feet above flood stage with a corresponding rise in the water level of the swamp. Such a water level, however, is unusual in the Blue Girth Swamp. In the swamp, stands of the tupelo gum-cypress complex are characteristic of the deeper waters (2-7 ft.), while samples of the tupelo gum-cypressswamp black gum forest are found along the marginal areas in shallower waters (0-2 ft.). Pure forests of swamp black gum and marshes of bur-reed (Sparganium americanum) are present in the shallow waters south of State Highway Number 14. Contiguous stands of tupelo gum-cypress-swamp black gum, tu1 Contribution from the Botany Department, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana. The authors wish to thank Mrs. Faith P. Mackaness for drawing the map of Blue Girth basin and environs. 2 Nomenclature follows Small's Manual of the Southeastern Flora, 1933.

A Phytosociological Study of a Nyssa biflora Consocies in Southeastern Louisiana

Swamp forests including bald cypress, Taxodium distichum, tupelo gum, Nyssa aquatica and swamp black gum, Nyssa biflora are common throughout the Southeastern United States. These forests may be composed of any of these species in pure stand or in any conceivable combination. In addition slash pine, Pinus Caribaea, and the 'so-called' pond cypress, Taxodium ascendens, may be important components in shallow, swampy areas throughout the lowlying flat pinelands of the lower Coastal Plain.

Dinitrophenol—A slim chance

Recognition of changes in forests provides greater perspective about current trajectories of forests. I compared the newest USDA Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) surveys to the oldest available surveys in the eastern United States to detect increasing and decreasing species and groups over large spatial extents. Species appeared to be increasing at the expense of decreasing species within each of the major forest ecosystems of the eastern United States. In eastern broadleaf forests, oaks and Virginia pine are decreasing and maples and eastern redcedar are increasing. In southern mixed forests, planted loblolly and slash pine are replacing shortleaf and longleaf pines, and longleaf pine wetland associates of swamp tupelo, pond cypress, and pond pine. In northern mixed forests of the Great Lake states, quaking aspen and paper birch are decreasing whereas red pine, later successional black spruce and northern white-cedar, and maples of eastern broadleaf forests are increasing. Indeed, red maple now is more frequent than aspen in northern mixed forests. The historical legacy of fire continues to affect forest composition. Without fire, fire-tolerant oaks and pines (that are not planted) still are decreasing, whereas fire-sensitive tree species are increasing. Forestry practices benefit planted pines but are not as effective at supporting quaking aspen against competition from red maple and species of the eastern broadleaf forest as in the past.