War Taxes Research Articles

The genesis of Swiss banking secrecy: political and economic environment

Until 1935 there was no national legislation governing banking in Switzerland and hence no banking secrecy codified at national level. Over the centuries a distinctive relationship of trust had arisen between the Swiss banks and their customers which made banking secrecy an unwritten law. Even before the First World War a number of banks had failed in Switzerland and the first specific calls for government supervision of the banks were made, unsuccessfully, as early as 1916. In the early 1930s major Swiss banks had been severely affected by the 1931 German banking crisis. There was also during the 1930s a great fear of civil disruption, a breakdown of order and of espionage and infringements of sovereignty in the context of an increasingly threatening international situation. Banks throughout Europe were spied upon to prevent the evasion of the war taxes that had been introduced in many countries. Swiss banks had been the target of French and German investigations since 1931. The debacle over Volksbank in 1933 was in some ways the catalyst that finally accelerated a political settlement over banking legislation.

When Do Small Countries Win Tax Wars?

This article analyzes the conditions under which the smaller of two otherwise iden- tical countries prefers the noncooperative Nash equilibrium to a situation of fully harmonized tax rates. A standard two-country model of capital tax competition is extended by allowing for transaction costs, additional countries, and additional tax instruments The effects of introducing either mobility costs or a wage tax instru ment are theoretically ambiguous because they lower both the costs and the benefits of noncooperation from the perspective of the small country. Numerical simulations indicate, however, that for a wide range of parameter values, all model extensions considered reduce the possibility that the small country gains from tax competition.

Comment on Alternative Models for Clearance and Settlement: The Case of the Single European Capital Market

Investing in securities of foreign companies and foreign governments involves economic and political risks and considerations not typically associated with investing in U.S. companies and the U.S. Government. These considerations include changes in exchange rates and exchange rate controls (which may include suspension of the ability to transfer currency from a given country), costs incurred in conversions between currencies, non-negotiable brokerage commissions, less publicly available information, different accounting standards, lower trading volume, delayed settlement and greater market volatility, the difficulty of enforcing obligations in other countries, less securities regulation, different tax provisions (including withholding on dividends paid to the Fund), war, expropriation, political and social instability and diplomatic developments. (Tweedy, Browne Global Value Fund, Investment Manager's Semi-Annual Report, September 30,1995, p. 28)

Community Care and Homelessness: R v Wirral Metropolitan Borough Council, ex parte B

specified what form such retaliation might take.58 The Finance Committee, echoing the views of the German government, declared that continued use of WCR would 'significantly prejudice' German-US economic relations, and called on the Clinton Administration to return to the 'common approach' adopted by all other OECD members and to urge California to relinquish the use of WCR.59 This community of views has given the problem the potential to result in more farreaching global consequences. The reason that any retaliation against California might unleash a tax war is that the United States possesses a number of weapons designed specifically to combat perceived unfair tax practices by foreign countries. Of most note perhaps is the power of the President to double US tax rates on citizens and corporations from a foreign country by proclaiming that that foreign country is imposing 'discriminatory or extraterritorial' taxation on US citizens or corporations.60 Though on the statute books since the 1930s, this power has never been exercised; however, the suggestion has been made that it be invoked to counter any UK action against California.61 In conclusion, although California's 1993 tax reforms helped to reduce international tension over WCR, it is almost certainly too early to consider this dispute as having been resolved. The UK government's reaction to the Barclays ruling was measured, considering that just months earlier it had threatened retaliation against California that could have cost MNEs based in that state many millions of dollars each year in lost tax credits. However, the potential clearly still exists for a damaging tax war a new type of trade war for the 1990s. Watch this space.

Research in Progress

Research in Progress Prepared by Mary Ellen Chijioke and Claire B. Shetter Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College 500 College Avenue, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania 19081 Women's studies continue to be a fertile breeding ground for Quaker history topics, and a number of researchers are working on topics relating to gender roles in the Society of Friends. Phyllis Mack of Rutgers University is preparing a book on "Gender and spirituality in 17th-century Quakerism." Her address is 334 Graham St., Highland Park, NJ 08904. Rebecca Larson, a Fellow of the Philadelphia Center for Early American Studies, is writing her Harvard doctoral dissertation on "Quaker women ministers, 1700-1775, in the AngloAmerican world." During her field studies, she can be reached at 615 North Chester Rd. , Swarthmore, PA 19081 . Covering the next century, Carole Spencer, a graduate student at Western Evangelical Seminary, is studying 19th-century Gurneyite Quaker women ministers and their contributions to social reform. Her mailing address is 15770 S. Beaver Glen Dr., Oregon City, OR 97045. Alison M. Newby, a doctoral candidate at Manchester University (address: 12 Deanbank Ave., Burnage, Manchester MI9 2E2, England) finds Quakers very important in all aspects of her research on "Religious choices of women in the antebellum period." Margaret Hope Bacon, of 1726 Addison St., Philadelphia, PA 19146, continues her interest in women in her study of Quaker women's journals. Depending on the results of her research, she hopes to produce either a book or a set of extracts. Writing for a younger audience, Nancy W. Bennett of the Institute of Children's Literature has been researching the lives of young Quaker girls to find a suitable true incident to serve as the basis for a short story. Her address is 421 Hardscrabble Rd., Briarcliff Manor, NY 10510. The feminist theme is continued in the appearance of Lucretia Mott as the most popular biographee. Sally M. Davis, a graduate student who can be reached at 1352 G Street, SE, Washington, DC 20003, is "reworking Hare's biography from a feminist perspective." Also in the capital area, Jen Batchelder, a graduate student at George Washington University, is studying Mott's personal correspondence with her family. Her address is 10414 Inwood Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20902. Douglas Gwyn of Pendle Hill (Wallingford, PA 19086) is conducting research for a book on early Friends and politics. Elaine J. Crauderueff, of 306 Bailey Rd., Rosemont, PA 19010, is preparing a Pendle Hill pamphlet on "War Taxes: Experiences of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Quakers through the American Revolution," based on her 1986 MA thesis in Religious Studies for Villanova University. Teruyasu Tamura of Chukyo University in Japan has been a visiting scholar at Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College conducting research on the influence of Quakerism on American culture and especially American literature. He has been looking at the work of Penn, Woolman, Cooper, Emerson , Whitman, and Elizabeth Gray Vining, among others. He hopes to produce a series of articles for the Japanese journals of English studies, as well as a general book. He can be reached locally at 3 Dartmouth Court, Swarthmore , PA 19081. His permanent address is 626-1 Nishihino-cho, Yokkaichishi , Mie-ken 7510 Japan. Research in Progress53 Other biographies cover the full span of Quaker history. Larry Ingle is working on a biography of George Fox. This will be the first modern general biography of Fox. Ingle is on the faculty of the University of Tennessee and can be reached at 1106 Collins Circle, Chattanooga, TN 37411. J. Henriette Louis is preparing a biography of William Penn for the major French publisher Gallimard. Her address is 28 place St. Gilles, 91150 Etampes, France. For the nineteenth century, Beverly Weaver is researching Joseph Wharton and especially his New Jersey ventures, family, and Batsto Village for the State of New Jersey's New Jersey Heritage Program (DEP, CN404, Trenton, NJ 80625). Coming to the early twentieth century, Madeline Gaudioso is preparing her MA thesis for San Jose State University on Helen Marot. She can be reached by mail at 15941 Linda Ave., Los Gatos, CA 95030. The chronology is completed with David M. Kennedy's research for a biography of Courtney Smith, President of Swarthmore College from...

Toward Freedom for All: North Carolina Quakers and Slavery (review)

Book Reviews67 a paradigm of the Quaker struggle to sustain spiritual convictions in times of cultural respectability. Not only academic freedom was at stake but also whether Christians who enjoy establishment status through their institutions can find both the courage and the means to sustain their central convictions. Reflecting upon goals of the Friends Association of Higher Education, to which organization Edwin Bronner has made significant contributions, I am prompted to recommend this book as a gift to presidents and trustees of our Quaker colleges with the account of Cadbury noted. George Fox CollegeArthur O. Roberts Toward Freedomfor All: North Carolina Quakers and Slavery. By Hiram H. Hilty. Richmond, Indiana: Friends United Press, 1984. x, 159 pp. $4.95. Slavery in its myriad forms of forceful social control has existed almost since the dawn of time. Its labels have changed — call it serfdom, peonage, involuntary servitude, indentured service, or work in the salt mines of Siberia or the concentration camps of Nazi Germany. But the hard fact remains that slave labor is labor obtained by and secured by force, without compensation except for minimum maintenance; American farmers and plantation owners readily bought the Africans which slave traders had been bringing to the English colonies since 1619. In the beginning Friends were indistinguishable from their neighbors in this respect. For nearly a hundred years after the time of their arrival in the Carolinas they bought, owned, and sold slaves, particularly in the eastern Tidewater where plantation-type agriculture prevailed. They treated their Negroes kindly, as George Fox had admonished them. But eventually the Quaker belief of that of God in everyone caused a few early prophets to question their Biblical right to keep men in life-long bondage. Particularly they queried the righteousness of buying and trading people who were victims of war and violence. Finally, after much agitation and discussion, the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of Ministers and Elders sent Carolina Friends an epistle of caution and advice against buying and keeping Negroes. John Woolman and other Friends journeyed south to visit Friends and labor with them on the subject. And in 1768 Western Quarterly Meeting at New Garden, in the small-farming Piedmont area around Greensboro, asked the yearly meeting whether it was permissible for Friends to buy and hold slaves. The question was complicated by the fact that the largest of Quaker slaveholders lived in the Tidewater area where Eastern Quarterly Meeting was located. Furthermore, as the tensions of the revolutionary period developed, and many Friends opposed both war taxes and militia service, their more radical neighbors looked upon them as Tories and troublemakers, whose freed slaves might be a danger to whites in time of war. But as the western part of the colony began to fill up in the 1760s and 1770s with Quaker immigrants from Pennsylvania and further north the pressure among Friends against slavery grew. In 1777 in the eastern region Quaker masters freed some forty slaves. In the face of the 1777 law that emancipated slaves must be removed from the state upon penalty of re-enslavement, many Friends there had to transfer their titles in their slaves to the yearly meeting in order that their slaves might be freed and prevented from being seized by the state and sold back into slavery. The yearly meeting then stood bond for the freed slaves' behavior until arrangement could be made for them to emigrate. This was not an easy undertaking. But by 1840 the task, nearly completed, 68Quaker History resulted in over 680 slaves being sent to Haiti, and 490 to Liberia, the colony of the American Colonization Society. Five hundred and twenty-five went to the free states of the north and west. Other American yearly meetings as well as London helped with the costs which ran up into scores of thousands of dollars. It is no wonder that many Carolina Friends accompanied their freed slaves westward as Southerners reacted violently to the radical anti-slavery movement which sprang up in the North in the 183Os. Some individual Friends worked openly or secretly in the Underground Railroad. Others who stayed on in North Carolina retreated into quietism or became Baptists, Methodists or Presbyterians. Quakers...

A 'Crisis' Reconsidered: Social and Demographic Dislocation in London in the 1590s

THE 1590swas a difficult decade for the English people. High prices, failed harvests from 1594to 1597, increasing poverty and vagrancy, and war commitments in Ireland and against Spain all imposed strain, bringing a gloomy end to the Tudor century. How the City of London coped during this period, and, in particular, how those in authority kept control of the situation, has been the subject of a previous paper. 1 Food shortage was made good by importing corn from English counties and the Baltic. The privy council encouraged prosperous residents of the City to give charity to their less fortunate brethren. Vagrants were kept under control by increased watches, by efforts to provide extra employment at Bridewell, the City workhouse, and by appointing provost marshals. And the demands of national government for war taxes and ships and troops were met, though by Christmas Eve 1596 they elicited a comprehensive complaint from the City government about the hardships of the City since 1594 and its inability to contribute more. Despite this London seems to have coped with the crisis successfully. As far as can be judged Londoners were fed even in the worst period of food shortage in 1596 and 1597 and the spectre of the hungry mob was kept firmly at bay. Only one outbreak of serious disorder, in June 1595, interrupted the peaceful control exercised during a difficult time. This picture of a city more or less peacefully managing in conditions which might easily have provoked a crisis (1597 saw the lowest real wages in English history) is puzzling.2 Did Londoners remain quiet because their living conditions were not as bad as the real wage index suggests? Or did they suffer in silence, cowed by the seeming inevitability of hardship? This paper seeks to explore the extent to which Londoners did suffer during the 1590s. Evidence for those suffering, often the old and young members of the community, and those with least hope, the unemployed and vagrant, is, however, sparse. They did not speak for themselves. We have, therefore, to use indirect evidence of social distress: intensified efforts to collect money for poor relief, the abandonment of children, harsher measures against strangers and vagrants, and changes in criminal activity and demographic behaviour. It is these problems that this paper will address.3

Research in Progress

RESEARCH IN PROGRESS Prepared by Barbara L. Curtis Martin D. Ruddock, M. D. is preparing a study on "Development and Application of the Precision Pendulum Timepiece in America" under the aegis of the Smithsonian Institution. His research traces the ownership of horological items, giving appropriate genealogical data. This work is of interest to Friends since several colonial clock and instrument makers were Quakers. Ruddock can be reached at 72 Harriman St., Bedford, Ohio 44146. * * * Irving O. Univer is pursuing research on Quaker costume in the Delaware Valley in the 1850's and '60s. His address is 1 1997 Dumont Rd. , Philadelphia, Pa. 19916. * * * Elizabeth Hartley, of 27 Wallingford Ave., Apt. D-4, Wallingford, Pa. 19086, is preparing a dissertation at the University of Pennsylvania on the contribution of selected women social reformers, among them some Quakers in the field of child welfare. * * # The role of Quaker women is also being investigated by two other scholars. Frances Taber, Pendle Hill, Wallingford, Pa. 19086, is gathering material for a weekend conference at Pendle Hill on the leadership experience of Quaker women with particular emphasis on the early period of Friends' history. Kathleen Pokstefl, 25 Rittenhouse Place, Ardmore, Pa. 19003, is preparing a Ph.D. dissertation for the School of Social Work at Bryn Mawr College, on Quaker female benevolent societies in the 17th and 18th century Philadelphia. * * * Arthur B. Nicholls, 27 B Chestnut Terrace Apts., Salem, N.J. , 08079, and Betty Scott, 3 Old Oak Rd., Mickleton, N.J., 08056, are preparing a history of the meetings which compose Salem Quarterly Meeting, New Jersey. * * # Marilena de Souza Chaui is pursuing research about Spinoze and the Quakers in Amsterdam during the seventeenth century. A member ofthe Dept. ofPhilosophy, at the Universidade de Sao Paulo, Brazil, she can be reached at Rue Conde de Porto Alegre 2092, Sao Paulo 04608, Brazil. Elaine Craydereff, 152 Stoneway Lane, Bala Cynwyd, Pa. 19004, is preparing a master's thesis at Villanova University on "War Taxes: the Experience of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Quakers Prior to 1 800." * * * Edward Higgins, Associate Professor of English at George Fox College, Newberg , Ore. 97132, is collecting materials for two projects. One is a critical edition of Penn's Fruits of Solitude, and the other is a study of the historical elements of Quakerism in Melville's Moby Dick. Stephen A. Kent, of the Dept. of Sociology. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta. T6E 4S6, is doing research for a book on social protest movements of Interregnum England. Quaker relationships to these movements will be included. 68 Research In Progress69 Friends' meetinghouses are currently a major interest of several scholars. Sandra J. Miller, 216 D Meetinghouse Rd., Twin Oaks, Pa. 19014, is gathering data on Upper Chichester Meeting House as part of a larger study about Upper Chichester Township. Ruth Anna Cary, 4818 Cedar Ave., Philadelphia. Pa. 19143, a graduate student at the University of Pennsylvania, is making a study offne architecture of Radnor Meetinghouse. David S. Wilson, who is preparing lectures for his American Studies course at University of California, at Davis. Ca. 95616, is interested in Friends meetinghouses, both interior and exterior construction, as well as in the artistic work of Edward Hicks, and he would like to hear from anyone working in these areas. =fc F ^ A theme which concerns several scholars is biographical studies of individual Quakers. William P. Taber, Jr., of Pendle Hill, Wallingford, Pa. 19086, is completing a history of Ohio Yearly Meeting (Conservative), which includes details on the life and work ofElisha Bates (ca. 1779-1861). Leila Zenderland, 3230 Quartz Lane, G7, Fullerton, Ca. 9263 1 , is working on a dissertation at California State University about the family of Henry Herbert Goddard of Vassalboro, Maine. The Goddards were Quaker missionaries who visited Ireland and England in the period of the 1880's and '90's. Carol E. Hoffecker ofthe Department ofHistory at the University of Delaware is gathering material for an article on Benjamin Ferris (1780-1867), a Quaker historian and theologian of Wilmington which will appear in Delaware History. ...

Conflict and Violence in Contemporary Sierra Leone Chiefdoms

Violence has been a recurring feature of political life in provincial Sierra Leone for a long time. In 1898, two years after the establishment of colonial rule, a mass rebellion, commonly known as the Hut Tax War, and directed against British political authority, took place over a large part of the Protectorate. Thereafter, the violence which periodically disrupted the chiefdoms of the hinterland, during both the colonial and post-colonial periods, resulted predominantly from conflicts amongst the indigenous peoples themselves. This article is concerned with the various disturbances that flared up in the Sierra Leone chiefdoms since the late 1940s.

Bai Bureh, The British, and the Hut Tax War

Bai Bureh, The British, and the Hut Tax War

Nyagua, The British, and the Hut Tax War

Nyagua, The British, and the Hut Tax War

Articles in Quaker Periodicals

ARTICLES IN QUAKER PERIODICALS By Lyman W. Riley Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College The Canadian Friend An editorial interview with Emmett Gulley, who visited the Dukhobors of Canada during the spring of 1950 as a representative of the American and Canadian Friends Service Committees, tells of some of the present problems of diis sect.—Dec, 1950, pp. 2-4. The Friend (London) "William Savery, 1750-1804," by L. Hugh Doncaster, outlines the life and describes the preaching of this American Quaker minister.— Sept. 15, 1950, pp. 687-688. Doris N. Dalglish has some appreciative words to say about William Penn's Some Fruits of Solitude which was also well-liked by Robert Louis Stevenson; "Stevenson and Penn."—Nov. 17, 1950, pp. 839-840. "Friends and the 1851 Exhibition," by Hubert W. Peel, consists mainly of excerpts from The Friend (London) of 1851 which comment on the Great Exhibition in the Crystal Palace.—Ian. 12, 1951, pp. 29-31. Friends Intelligencer "Insights of Permanent Value in Barclay," are, to Waldo Beach, his doctrines of "selective wididrawal" from the world and "vocational pacifism."-^5ept. 9, 1950, pp. 527-528. F. Charles Thum writes of "Creative Quaker Architecture," the architecture of the early American meetinghouses, which, he says, was forward-looking and even experimental in its day.—Oct. 7, 1950, pp. 587-588. The 250th anniversary celebration of Moorestown Meeting, N. J., is described by Shaun B. Copithorne.—Oct. 7, 1950, pp. 589-590. In "Questions and Answers about Quakers Past and Present," Frederick B. Tolles discusses the adoption of the pastoral system by some American Friends and tells of the origin of the term "Quaker."—Oct. 14, 1950, pp. 604-605. Waldo Beach finds that one of the "Insights of Permanent Value in Woolman" is Woolman's "integrity to truth," i.e. his concern for right motivation rather than practical success.—Oct. 21, 1950, p. 617. Letter from the Past No. 112 discusses the substitution in the plain language of "Thee for Thou," and some other contradictions in Quaker language usage.—Nov. 11, 1950, p. 661. "John of Haverhill," by A. Gerald Whittier, is an imaginative account of the birth of John Greenleaf Whittier ; it is part of a proposed novelized life of the poet.—Dec. 9, 1950, pp. 720-721. 62 Articles in Quaker Periodicals63 After showing that the Bible has always been of great value to Friends, Frederick B. Tolles defines "continuity of revelation" in relation to Friends beliefs: "Questions and Answers about Quakers Past and Present."—Dec. 23, 1950, pp. 755-756. "Minor Queries re Reunion," Letter from the Past No. 113, are in reference to the proper name for a united Philadelphia Yearly Meeting and the correct numbering of its sessions.—Dec.·30, 1950, p. 765. Anna Green Shoemaker describes briefly an interchange of visits between Indians and Friends in the 1760's, involving chiefly Papunahung and lohn Woolman; "Visit of Religious Indians to the Quakers in Philadelphia."—Dec. 30, 1950, pp. 765-766. In "A Retrospect of Recent Quakerism, 1900-1950," Frederick B. Tolles writes comprehensively of events and trends in organization, action, and doctrine.—Jan. 6, 1951, pp. 4-6. Elinor Dennis submits to a "Quakeriana" department some amusing anecdotes involving Quakers.—Jan. 6, 1951, pp. 10-11. "Now and Then" shares some of his thoughts "On Rereading John Woolman's Journal," among which are a new appreciation of Woolman 's contacts with "New Lights" and his concern about war taxes: Letter from the Past No. 114.—Jan. 20, 1951, pp. 38-39. The Friends' Quarterly Lulie A. Shaw quotes delightful excerpts from "Some Letters from Young Quakers in die 1840's,"—the family letters of Benjamin Head Cadbury, his wife, Candia, and their numerous children.—Oct., 1950, pp. 244-255. "The Dialectic of Quaker History," according to Stephen Allott, has meant successive shifts in emphasis from prophecy based on inward experience, to Quietism, then to evangelicalism, then to service, and perhaps, in the future, again to inward experience.—Jan., 1951, pp. 24-30. In "Quaker Simplicity," Gladys Wilson describes die witness to simplicity on the part of early Friends and its transformation when made a part of the discipline and tradition; she suggests that...

Nazi War Taxes

Nazi War Taxes

Our Mounting Governmental Debt

W AR taxation gathers force slowly, despite the necessity to secure funds immediately in such critical emergencies. In the period from April 5, 1917, to June 30, 1919, only 22 per cent of Federal expenditures were met by war taxes. It is commonly agreed that wars cannot be financed through taxes alone. Granted that public debt must be resorted to in order to finance wars, however, the extent to which debts should be employed for such purposes is by no means certain. Nor is it certain in what degree it will be possible to finance the next war through this means, in view of the size, composition, and distribution of the present Federal debt. The extensive use of public debt during the recent depression may have absorbed the emergency borrowing power of the Federal Government to such an

The Evolution of the Federal Tax System

The evolution of the federal tax system has been from small volume of revenues to large volume, from a simple structure to a highly complicated and diverse structure, from almost complete reliance on indirect taxes to heavy reliance on progressive direct taxes. Over the three-fourths of a century of national life prior to the Civil War the tariff on imports was the overwhelmingly important source of federal tax revenue and during two-thirds of that period no other taxes were in effect. Basic developments in the federal tax system have come for the most part in three major waves which occurred during and after the Civil War, the World War and the recent depression. Each wave was characterized by a great extension and multiplication of revenue sources, followed (at least in the first and second waves) by a contraction and abandonment of sources, with a net long-term result of expansion and diversification of the system. The Civil War period added to the tariff, internal revenue taxes on liquor and tobacco as permanent revenue sources. The World War period enlarged the income tax, which had just been introduced, from a minor position to that of the major source of federal revenue, and added the estate tax. The outcome of the latest major tax wave, that of the recent depression period, is still uncertain, but there is little doubt that the permanent effects on the tax system will be of major character.' * Ph.D., I929, University of Wisconsin. Director of Tax Research, United States Treasury Department, since 1938. Chief Statistician, Wisconsin Tax Commission, I927-1932; Associate Professor of Economics, Graduate School of Public Administration, University of Cincinnati, 1932-1938. Author and joint author of various articles and works in the field of taxation. 1 Other waves of taxes which left no apparent permanent changes in the tax structure occurred during the first decade of national life, the War of i 8i2, and the Spanish-American War, respectively. The first Act of Congress in 1789 imposed a tariff for revenue and protection. The revenue was insufficient, and during the next few years taxes were imposed on the manufacture of whiskey, snuff and sugar, legal documents and carriages, and in 1798 a single payment direct tax levy was imposed on houses, slaves and lands. Collections from the various internal levies and the direct tax were relatively small, exceeding 15% of the collections from the tariff in only one year. All internal taxes were repealed in i802 or shortly thereafter. Opposition to internal taxation continued to be so strong that despite the requirements of the War of I812, no new taxation was provided until the summer of 1813 when taxes were imposed on liquors, sugar refining, carriages, auctions and financial instruments, and a broad list of manufacturers' sales, and a single payment direct tax imposed on houses, slaves and land. Tax rates were increased in I814 and in I815 the internal revenue, including the direct tax, nearly equalled the reduced customs receipts of that year. Following a very high customs yield in the next year, after the end of the war, the war taxes were practically all repealed. From I817 until the Civil War the tariff was practically the sole source of tax revenue, adjustments being made in the rates from time to time to meet the demands for revenue and protection. Revenues

International Congress of Radiology

Your committee after due consideration have decided that Thos. Cook & Son are able to handle the arrangements for the delegates in the best possible manner. Three official trips have been decided upon as here mentioned. The rates shown provide for reservations on the ocean steamer at the rate of $300.00 each way, plus $5.00 war tax for the outward accommodation, and in the event of either cheaper or more expensive accommodations being taken, adjustment in the rate will be made. The prices quoted provide for first class transportation tickets and first class hotels, including a bed in a double room without bath (which can be arranged for at an additional charge), and meat breakfast in England and plain breakfast on the European continent, also transfer of passengers and hand baggage to and from the steamers, hotels and stations and the necessary European war taxes levied on hotel accommodation. Thos. Cook & Son also have arranged for three other tours, namely, Tour No. 4 which includes Great Britain, Norwa...

The Relation Between Federal and State Taxation

In the past the United States for the most part has collected its revenues from duties on imports, but at periods of unusual need has levied taxes on land, occupations, incomes, deeds and other contracts, and many other subjects. Since the Civil War taxes have also been levied on certain manufactures. The national revenue in the fiscal year 1913 aggregated $724,111,230, exclusive of postal receipts. Of this sum, $318,891,396 came from customs and $344,416,966 from internal revenue, which is, of course, chiefly from the manufacture and consumption of whisky, beer and tobacco. In the year 1914 a third important source of revenue has been added, namely, the income tax. The states, in their turn, are practically free to tax the persons and property within their borders in any way they may see fit. In the past the federal government and the states have selected their fields of taxation from the standpoint of opportunity and expediency, rather than according to the methods of logic or the principles of finance. If we may judge the future by the past, each jurisdiction will likely continue, for sometime, to use that field of taxation which best suits its convenience. For that reason I deem it wholly unwise and unnecessary to map out any so-called fieldof taxation either for the federal government or for the state governments. In other words, the scope of this paper must be the practical problem of the relation of federal and state taxation, rather than the theoretical problem of the proper field for each jurisdiction. Omitting this purely academic discussion, we still have left the serious problems of assessment and collection-surely a field big enough to engage all our energies. I believe if the problem is examined in this practical way, the investigation will finally lead to co6peration among the present overlapping and conflicting jurisdictions, and ultimately will give us a solution of the problem of the field.