Time Task Research Articles

Psychophysiology of rhythmic stimuli and time experience in virtual reality

Time experience is an essential part of one’s perception of any environment, real or virtual. In this article, from a virtual environment design perspective, we explore how rhythmic stimuli can influence an unrelated cognitive task regarding time experience and performance in virtual reality. This study explicitly includes physiological data to investigate how, overall, experience correlates with psychophysiological observations. The task involves sorting 3D objects by shape, with varying rhythmic stimuli in terms of their tempo and sensory channel (auditory and/or visual) in different trials, to collect subjective measures of time estimation and judgment. The results indicate different effects on time experience and performance depending on the context, such as user fatigue and trial repetition. Depending on the context, a positive impact of audio stimuli or a negative impact of visual stimuli on task performance can be observed, as well as time being underestimated concerning tempo in relation to task familiarity. However, some effects are consistent regardless of context, such as time being judged to pass faster with additional stimuli or consistent correlations between participants’ performance and time experience, suggesting flow-related aspects. We also observe correlations between time experience with eye-tracking data and body temperature, yet some of these correlations may be due to a confounding effect of fatigue. If confirmed as separate from fatigue, these physiological data could be used as reference point for evaluating a user’s time experience. This might be of great interest for designing virtual environments, as purposeful stimuli can strongly influence task performance and time experience, both essential components of virtual environment user experience.

Video Game Skills across Diverse Genres and Cognitive Functioning in Early Adulthood: Verbal and Visuospatial Short-Term and Working Memory, Hand-Eye Coordination, and Empathy.

The cognitive and affective impacts of video games are subjects of ongoing debate, with recent research recognizing their potential benefits. This study employs the Gaming Skill Questionnaire (GSQ) to evaluate participants' gaming skills across six genres and overall proficiency. A total of 88 individuals aged 20-40 participated, completing assessments of empathy and six cognitive abilities: verbal short-term memory, verbal working memory, visuospatial short-term memory, visuospatial working memory, psychomotor speed (hand-eye coordination), and attention. Participants' cognitive abilities were examined using the Digit Span Test, Corsi Block Test, and Deary-Liewald Reaction Time Task, while empathy was assessed using the Empathy Quotient Questionnaire. Findings indicate that higher levels of videogaming proficiency are linked to improvements in visuospatial short-term and working memory, psychomotor speed, and attention. Specific genres enhanced particular skills: RPGs were positively associated with both verbal working memory and visuospatial short-term memory, but were negatively associated with empathy; action games improved psychomotor speed and attention; and puzzle games showed a positive relationship with visuospatial working memory. These results add to ongoing research on the cognitive and affective effects of video games, suggesting their potential to enhance specific cognitive functions. They also highlight the complex relationship between video games and empathy. Future research should explore the long-term impacts and genre-specific effects.

FUZZY MODEL OF ELECTRICITY CONTROL WITH WIRELESS INFORMATION PROCESSED ON GPU

Methods of processing information transmitted through wireless networks with software development are investigated in the work. Innovative methods of data transmission such as optical technologies, quantum data transmission and wireless data transmission technologies are disclosed. It is noted that in the modern understanding, the concept of distributed computing defines the process of convergence (convergence) of distributed processing methods, such as GRID, cloud and fog computing, with the combination of virtual cluster systems (grid clusters, cloud clusters and fog clusters) into a single information communication and computing system . It is emphasized that, unlike cellular modems, ZigBee technology nodes have microcontrollers with a pre-installed operating system and flash memory, which allows solving simple computational tasks in real time before sending data. It is advisable to solve such tasks within the framework of a multi-agent approach, which will increase the efficiency of the use of sensor nodes and the entire sensor network. The advantages of the multi-agent technology of fog computing based on sensor nodes of the wireless network of the ZigBee standard are revealed. The method of multi-agent processing of sensory information and its main components are described. The architecture of the system of distributed sensor data processing is outlined, which includes 4 hardware and software levels: Terminal sensor nodes and controllers of measuring devices and automation devices that implement fuzzy calculations; Coordinators, sensor segment routers and cellular modems that collect, protect and transmit sensor data to the processing center; A data processing center that includes a cluster of servers for GRID calculations and a cloud data storage server; Client devices to access cloud storage, computing cluster servers, and distributed fog computing terminals. It is emphasized that indicators and forecast results can be stored on distributed sensor nodes or transmitted for accumulation in cloud storage for further extraction and intelligent processing in the GRID cluster of the data center.

Coordination of movements: identification of age-related dynamics of its development in karate boys 7-11 years old

The purpose of the study is to identify the age-related dynamics of the manifestation of coordination among junior and pre-pubescent karate boys (7-11 years old) training in the karate section at the initial stage of preparation. Materials and methods. The study involved 65 children of younger and prepubertal age. They underwent testing of coordination abilities in order to determine the level of development and identify the features of their manifestation in accordance with age and skill level. The selected sample was divided into five ages 7, 8, 9, 10 11 years old, with 13 children in each group. The children and their parents were aware of all the features of the study and gave their consent to participate in the experiment. The technical level of the children corresponded to the students of the 10th, 9th, 8th grades of Kyu (orange, orange with a blue stripe and blue belt color). To solve the tasks, the following research methods were used: study and analysis of scientific and methodological literature, pedagogical observation, timing of educational tasks, testing of coordination abilities, pedagogical ascertaining experiment, methods of mathematical statistics. Results. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a significant effect of the age factor on the level of indicators of coordination abilities for: differentiation of spatial-dynamic parameters of movements (F = 95.712; p = 0.000); reorganization of motor actions (F = 111.410; p = 0.000); differentiation of spatial-temporal parameters (F = 50.863; p = 0.000); coordination of hand movements (F = 96.764; p = 0.000); maintaining postural stability (F = 38.274; p = 0.000); maintaining vestibular stability (F = 61.291; p = 0.000). Conclusions. Based on the results of studies indicators of various manifestations of coordination, statistically significant age differences are observed between groups of boys aged 7 to 10 years (p < 0.05). At 10-11 years old, there are no significant statistically significant differences in all indicators (p > 0.05), except for dynamic balance (p < 0.05).

Post-Movement Beta Synchrony Inhibits Cortical Excitability.

This study investigates the relationship between movement-related beta synchrony and primary motor cortex (M1) excitability, focusing on the time-dependent inhibition of movement. Voluntary movement induces beta frequency (13-30 Hz) event-related desynchronisation (B-ERD) in M1, followed by post-movement beta rebound (PMBR). Although PMBR is linked to cortical inhibition, its temporal relationship with motor cortical excitability is unclear. This study aims to determine whether PMBR acts as a marker for post-movement inhibition by assessing motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) during distinct phases of the beta synchrony profile. Twenty-five right-handed participants (mean age: 24 years) were recruited. EMG data were recorded from the first dorsal interosseous muscle, and TMS was applied to the M1 motor hotspot to evoke MEPs. A reaction time task was used to elicit beta oscillations, with TMS delivered at participant-specific time points based on EEG-derived beta power envelopes. MEP amplitudes were compared across four phases: B-ERD, early PMBR, peak PMBR, and late PMBR. Our findings demonstrate that MEP amplitude significantly increased during B-ERD compared to rest, indicating heightened cortical excitability. In contrast, MEPs recorded during peak PMBR were significantly reduced, suggesting cortical inhibition. While all three PMBR phases exhibited reduced cortical excitability, a trend toward amplitude-dependent inhibition was observed. This study confirms that PMBR is linked to reduced cortical excitability, validating its role as a marker of motor cortical inhibition. These results enhance the understanding of beta oscillations in motor control and suggest that further research on altered PMBR could be crucial for understanding neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Do sport-specific demands lead to sensory-motor changes?

The study investigated how sport-specific environmental demands influence reaction time. Fifty-six women were divided into groups by age (Adults and Children) and sport-specific sensory-motor demands (Volleyball, Track and Field, Control). The Reaction Time task measured sensorimotor performance, prompting participants to quickly respond to visual stimuli by pressing the corresponding key. Reaction time was evaluated under two conditions with varying stimuli counts. Adults outperformed children in reaction time regardless of sport or age group. However, no significant differences were observed between sports within each age group. Additionally, sport experience did not predict sensorimotor performance according to regression analysis. These findings suggest that age-related changes significantly impact sensorimotor performance, while sport-specific environmental demands and experience have limited influence under non-specific conditions.

The influence of spatial frequency information on temporal synchrony perception on audiovisual stimuli.

Previous studies have shown that the spatial frequency (SF) of visual stimuli alters the perceived timing of subjective simultaneity. However, these studies have been limited to the effects of a single SF component. In this study, I measured and compared the points of subjective simultaneity (PSS) for audiovisual stimuli among low, high, and composited SF components. This experiment comprised a dual-presentation timing task and a ternary response format to eliminate response bias. The results indicated that the PSS value of the composition-SF stimuli was more toward visual-lead timing than the low-SF stimuli and did not differ significantly from that of the high-SF stimuli. The correlation coefficients showed that the PSS in composition-SF stimuli marginally approximated that of high-SF stimuli higher than that of low-SF stimuli. Future studies are needed to confirm these findings using visual stimuli with a wider range of SF components and with a modulated contrast.

Physical effort precrastination determines preference in an isometric task.

How the brain decides when to invest effort is a central question in neuroscience. When asked to walk a mile to a destination, would you choose a path with a hill at the beginning or the end? The traditional view of effort suggests we should be indifferent-all joules are equal so long as it does not interfere with accomplishing the goal. Yet, when total joules are equal across movement decisions, the brain's sensitivity to the temporal profile of effort investment remains poorly understood. Here, we sought to parse the interaction of time and physical effort by comparing subjective preferences in an isometric arm-pushing task that varied the duration and timing of high and low effort. Subjects were presented with a series of two-alternative forced choices, where they chose the force profile they would rather complete. Subjects preferred earlier physical effort (i.e., to precrastinate) but were idiosyncratic about preference for task timing. A model of subjective utility that includes physical effort costs, task costs, and independent temporal sensitivity factors described subject preferences best. Interestingly, deliberation time and response vigor covary with the same subjective utility model for preference, suggesting a utility that underlies both decision making and motor control. These results suggest physical effort costs are temporally sensitive, with earlier investment of effort preferred to later investment, and that the representation of effort is based on not only the total energy required but also when it is required to invest that energy.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We use a novel paradigm that differentiates physical effort costs, task costs, and time, where subjects choose between isometric arm-pushing tasks. Subjects prefer high physical effort earlier than later. They also decide faster and respond more vigorously the greater their preference. We find a generalizable subjective utility model that includes independent time-sensitivity of physical effort and task costs. Together, we demonstrate that subjective effort includes not only the total effort invested but also its timing.

Stochastic models for time complexity of computing tasks: II. Description of interaction with databases

The paper contains the second part of an investigation devoted to the design of the mathematical models for the execution time of user tasks carried out on the virtual calculating nodes. We provide the performance of the proposed model for the description of the data processing fulfilled in the databases. As a testbed for stress testing, we choose a prototype of the anonymization system of the passengers’ personal data. There are stochastic models describing two types of user tasks: personal data anonymization procedure and calculation of the sample statistical characteristics. The paper contains a detailed description of the stress test planning and fulfillment for both models. The obtained mathematical models developed by the real data demonstrate high performance.

Classifying Learning Speed Using Brain Networks and Psychological States: Unraveling the Interdependence Between Learning Performance, Psychological States, and Brain Functions.

Introduction The progression of performance learning (PL) may have complex relationships beyond mere concurrent occurrences and may influence each other. This study aimed to classify the speed of PL using a random forest based on brain network and stress state information and to identify the factors necessary for PL. In addition, this study also aimed to clarify the complex interdependent relationships between PL, psychological state, and brain function through these factors, using covariance structure analysis. Methods A total of 20 healthy individuals participated in a choice reaction time task, and brain function was measured using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Participants were divided into high-PL and low-PL groups based on the median difference in correct responses. Results Random forest analysis identified the left orbitofrontal area, right premotor cortex, right frontal pole, left frontal pole, left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and depression and anxiety as key factors. Covariance structure analysis revealed that depression and anxiety affected PL through the frontal pole and prefrontal cortex, suggesting a complex interplay between psychological state, brain function, and learning. Conclusions These findings suggest that psychological states influence brain networks, thereby affecting learning performance. Tailoring rehabilitation programs to address psychological states and providing targeted feedback may improve learning outcomes. The study provides insights into the theoretical and practical applications of understanding the brain's role in PL, as well as the importance of addressing psychological factors to optimize learning and rehabilitation strategies.

Anatomical and behavioural correlates of auditory perception in developmental dyslexia.

Developmental dyslexia is typically associated with difficulties in basic auditory processing and in manipulating speech sounds. However, the neuroanatomical correlates of auditory difficulties in developmental dyslexia (DD) and their contribution to individual clinical phenotypes are still unknown. Recent intracranial electrocorticography findings associated processing of sound amplitude rises and speech sounds with posterior and middle superior temporal gyrus (STG), respectively. We hypothesize that regional STG anatomy will relate to specific auditory abilities in DD, and that auditory processing abilities will relate to behavioral difficulties with speech and reading. One hundred and ten children (78 DD, 32 typically developing, age 7-15 years) completed amplitude rise time and speech in noise discrimination tasks. They also underwent a battery of cognitive tests. Anatomical MRI scans were used to identify regions in which local cortical gyrification complexity correlated with auditory behavior. Behaviorally, amplitude rise time but not speech in noise performance was impaired in DD. Neurally, amplitude rise time and speech in noise performance correlated with gyrification in posterior and middle STG, respectively. Furthermore, amplitude rise time significantly contributed to reading impairments in DD, while speech in noise only explained variance in phonological awareness. Finally, amplitude rise time and speech in noise performance were not correlated, and each task was correlated with distinct neuropsychological measures, emphasizing their unique contributions to DD. Overall, we provide a direct link between the neurodevelopment of the left STG and individual variability in auditory processing abilities in neurotypical and dyslexic populations.

Assessing processing-based measures of implicit statistical learning: Three serial reaction time experiments do not reveal artificial grammar learning.

Implicit statistical learning, whereby predictable relationships between stimuli are detected without conscious awareness, is important for language acquisition. However, while this process is putatively implicit, it is often assessed using measures that require explicit reflection and conscious decision making. Here, we conducted three experiments combining an artificial grammar learning paradigm with a serial reaction time (SRT-AGL) task, to measure statistical learning of adjacent and nonadjacent dependencies implicitly, without conscious decision making. Participants viewed an array of six visual stimuli and were presented with a sequence of three auditory (nonsense words, Expt. 1; names of familiar objects, Expt. 2) or visual (abstract shapes, Expt. 3) cues and were asked to click on the corresponding visual stimulus as quickly as possible. In each experiment, the final stimulus in the sequence was predictable based on items earlier in the sequence. Faster responses to this predictable final stimulus compared to unpredictable stimuli would provide evidence of implicit statistical learning, without requiring explicit decision making or conscious reflection. Despite previous positive results (Christiansen et al. 2009 and Misyak et al. 2010) we saw little evidence of implicit statistical learning in any of the experiments, suggesting that in this case, these SRT-AGL tasks were not an effective measure implicit statistical learning.

Miniscope Recording Calcium Signals at Hippocampus of Mice Navigating an Odor Plume.

Mice navigate an odor plume with a complex spatiotemporal structure in the dark to find the source of odorants. This article describes a protocol to monitor behavior and record Ca2+ transients in dorsal CA1 stratum pyramidale neurons in the hippocampus (dCA1) in mice navigating an odor plume in a 50 cm x 50 cm x 25 cm odor arena. An epifluorescence miniscope focused through a gradient-index (GRIN) lens imaged Ca2+ transients in dCA1 neurons expressing the calcium sensor GCaMP6f in Thy1-GCaMP6f mice. The paper describes the behavioral protocol to train the mice to perform this odor plume navigation task in an automated odor arena. The methods include a step-by-step procedure for the surgery for GRIN lens implantation and baseplate placement for imaging GCaMP6f in CA1. The article provides information on real-time tracking of the mouse position to automate the start of the trials and delivery of a water reward. In addition, the protocol includes information on using an interface board to synchronize metadata describing the automation of the odor navigation task and frame times for the miniscope and a digital camera tracking mouse position. Moreover, the methods delineate the pipeline used to process GCaMP6f fluorescence movies by motion correction using the NorMCorre algorithm followed by identification of regions of interest with EXTRACT. Finally, the paper describes an artificial neural network approach to decode spatial paths from CA1 neural ensemble activity to predict mouse navigation of the odor plume.

The effect of electrical muscle stimulation on intentional binding and explicit sense of agency.

The motivating question for this study is determining whether electrical muscle stimulation (EMS)-induced movements can extend the user's ability without reducing the sense of agency. Moreover, it is crucial to find the timing of the EMS application that is robust against individual differences and environmental changes. Previous studies have reported that the user-specific EMS-application timings, determined through explicit measures of sense of agency, would effectively shorten their reaction time in a push task while maintaining their sense of agency. However, no study has investigated EMS-application timings in relation to implicit measures of sense of agency. Intentional binding, an example of an implicit measure, refers to the phenomenon whereby the interval between an intentional action and the subsequent perceptual outcome is typically perceived to be shorter than the actual interval. By measuring this perceptual shift using a Libet clock, we have identified an EMS-application timing that accelerates the users' push action while maintaining their sense of agency. First, to conduct the EMS-application experiment while appropriately maintaining the intentional binding effect, we designed a new push task such that a pre-action, as the base timing of the EMS-application trigger, always occurs just before the push movement. (1) We showed the difference between the action-binding effect of EMS-induced involuntary movements and voluntary push movements. Subsequently, (2) we identified the EMS application timing that significantly shifted judgments of action tasks while accelerating voluntary movements. Additionally, (3) we demonstrated that the EMS application could accelerate user pushing movement while maintaining the sense of agency at this specific application time. The proposed EMS in the novel pushing setup was found to be robustly effective against individual and environmental changes.

Examining flight time, cognitive reflection, workload, stress and metacognition on decision making performance for pilots during flight simulation

Despite technological advancements, human decision errors still contribute to civil aviation accidents. This study investigated whether flight time, cognitive reflection, task-load, metacognition, and perceived stress predicted decision-making (DM) performance during two in-flight training simulations with 104 commercial pilots at Bogota International Airport. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the predictors accounted for 56% of the variance. Cognitive reflection, flight time and performance task load emerged as significant positive predictors. Cognitive reflection significantly moderated the relationship between flight time and DM performance, with pilots scoring lower on cognitive reflection showing improved DM with increased flight time, while controlling for performance task load. The study did not find significant relationships between stress metacognition and DM performance. The study emphasises the significance of advanced training methods in improving pilots’ DM, especially for those with low cognitive reflection. Future research should expand to multiple airlines, address gender balance, and incorporate direct measures of metacognitive monitoring.

Periodic Scheduling Optimization for Dual-Arm Cluster Tools with Arm Task and Residency Time Constraints via Petri Net Model

In order to improve quality assurance in wafer manufacturing, there are strict process requirements. Besides the well-known residency time constraints (RTCs), a dual-arm cluster tool also requires each robot arm to execute a specific set of tasks. We call such a tool an arm task-constrained dual-arm cluster tool (ATC-DACT). To do this, one of the arms is identified as the dirty one and the other as the clean one. The dirty one can deal with raw wafers, while the clean one can deal with processed wafers. This requirement raises a new problem for scheduling a cluster tool. This paper discusses the scheduling problem of ATC-DACTs with RTCs. Due to the arm task constraints, the proven, effective swap strategy is no longer applicable to ATC-DACTs, making the scheduling problem difficult. To address this problem, we explicitly describe the robot waiting as an event and build a Petri net (PN) model. Then, we propose a hybrid task sequence (HTS) as an operation strategy by combining the swap and backward strategies. Based on the HTS, the necessary and sufficient conditions for schedulability are established; also, a linear programming model is developed. We then develop an algorithm using these results to optimally schedule the system. Industrial case studies demonstrate the application of this method.

SLOPE: Safety LOg PEripherals implementation and software drivers for a safe RISC-V microcontroller unit

The focus of this manuscript is related to the main safety issues regarding a mixed criticality system running multiple concurrent tasks. Our concerns are related to the guarantee of Freedom of Interference between concurrent partitions, and to the respect of the Worst Case Execution Time for tasks. Moreover, we are interested in the evaluation of resources budgeting and the study of system behavior in case of occurring random hardware failures. In this paper we present a set of Safety LOg PEripherals (SLOPE): Performance Monitoring Unit (PMU), Execution Tracing Unit (ETU), Error Management Unit (EMU), Time Management Unit (TMU) and Data Log Unit (DLU); then, an implementation of SLOPE on a single core RISC-V architecture is proposed. Such peripherals are able to collect software and hardware information about execution, and eventually trigger recovery actions to mitigate a possible dangerous misbehavior. We show results of the hardware implementation and software testing of the units with a dedicated software library. For the PMU we standardized the software layer according to embedded Performance Application Programming Interface (ePAPI), and compared its functionality with a bare-metal use of the library. To test the ETU we compared the hardware simulation results with software ones, to understand if overflow may occur in internal hardware buffers during tracing. In conclusion, designed devices introduce new instruments for system investigation for RISC-V technologies and can generate an execution profile for safety related tasks.

AUTOSAR-Compatible Level-4 Virtual ECU for the Verification of the Target Binary for Cloud-Native Development

The rapid evolution of automotive software necessitates efficient and accurate development and verification processes. This study proposes a virtual electronic control unit (vECU) that allows for precise software testing without the need for hardware, thereby reducing developmental costs and enabling cloud-native development. The software was configured and built on a Hyundai Autoever AUTomotive Open System Architecture (AUTOSAR) classic platform, Mobilgene, and Renode was used for high-fidelity emulations. Custom peripherals in C# were implemented for the FlexTimer, system clock generator, and analog-to-digital converter to ensure the proper functionality of the vECU. Renode’s GNU debugger server function facilitates detailed software debugging in a cloud environment, further accelerating the developmental cycle. Additionally, automated testing was implemented using a vECU tester to enable the verification of the vECU. Performance evaluations demonstrated that the vECU’s execution order and timing of tasks and runnable entities closely matched those of the actual ECU. The vECU tester also enabled fast and accurate verification. These findings confirm the potential of the AUTOSAR-compatible Level-4 vECU to replace hardware in development processes. Future efforts will focus on extending capabilities to emulate a broader range of hardware components and complex system integration scenarios, supporting more diverse research and development efforts.

Early life stress induced sex-specific changes in behavior is paralleled by altered locus coeruleus physiology in BALB/cJ mice

Adverse childhood experiences have been associated with many neurodevelopmental and affective disorders including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and generalized anxiety disorder, with more exposures increasing negative risk. Sex and genetic background are biological variables involved in adverse psychiatric outcomes due to early life trauma. Females in general have an increased prevalence of stress-related psychopathologies beginning after adolescence, indicative of adolescence being a female-specific sensitive period. To understand the underlying neuronal mechanisms potentially responsible for this relationship between genetic background, sex, stress/trauma, and cognitive/affective behaviors, we assessed behavioral and neuronal changes in a novel animal model of early life stress exposure. Male and female BALB/cJ mice that express elevated basal anxiety-like behaviors and differences in monoamine signaling-associated genes, were exposed to an early life variable stress protocol that combined deprivation in early life with unpredictability in adolescence. Stress exposure produced hyperlocomotion and attention deficits (5-choice serial reaction time task) in male and female mice along with female-specific increased anxiety-like behavior. These behavioral changes were paralleled by reduced excitability of locus coeruleus (LC) neurons, due to resting membrane potential hyperpolarization in males and a female-specific increase in action potential delay time. These data describe a novel interaction between sex, genetic background, and early life stress that results in behavioral changes in clinically relevant domains and potential underlying mechanistic lasting changes in physiological properties of neurons in the LC.

Vagus Nerve Stimulation Paired With Rehabilitation for Chronic Stroke: Characterizing Responders.

Implantable vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) paired with volitional upper extremity rehabilitation can improve impairment and function among moderately to severely impaired, chronic stroke survivors. This study is a retrospective analysis of the in-clinic rehabilitation phase of the blinded, placebo-controlled, randomized pivotal VNS-REHAB trial to determine whether dosing parameters during in-clinic paired VNS therapy were associated with responder status and whether covariates might impact that determination. Data were limited to 53 participants in the active VNS group who had received VNS implants prior to undergoing 6weeks of in-clinic rehabilitation paired with VNS. Tasks were standardized across all participants. Dosing parameters included number of stimulations and task time. The primary outcome was the Fugl-Meyer Upper Extremity Assessment (FMA-UE), evaluated at the end of 6weeks (Post-1). Participants were classified a priori as responders based on an improvement of≥6 points on the FMA-UE from baseline to Post-1. Dosing parameters were not associated with FMA-UE responder status at the end of 6weeks. Covariates including age, gender, paretic hand, baseline severity, and chronicity of stroke were also not significant associations of response. While responders to VNS could be defined, therapy dosing and participant attributes did not provide greater specification for association of responder status. Limitations of this study include small sample size and non-linearity of the FMA-UE. Future studies will include reassessing responder categorization using more linear scales and examining stroke lesion characteristics to determine whether these measures are more sensitive to dosing parameters. for more insights from the authors (see the Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, available at: http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink ).