Target Language Group Research Articles

Humanizing Translation: The Translated Text is as good as the Translator

As the world becomes smaller and smaller and people get more interested in knowing and understanding each other deeper, translation continue to solicit greater attention. Everyone has his or her own unique style of presenting information and knowledge. Translation is not just about bilingualism but more a bicultural issue. Moreover, some words used in every language are bound to reflect not just some cultural connotations but also personal beliefs and prejudices. Therefore, Translation implies that the translator has the capacity to enter into the mind, the world, the emotions and the culture of the speakers or writers and express their thought not only parallel to the original, but also acceptable to the target language world. Translators are more of creators of language, ideas and cultures than just consumers of the existing texts. They opt for either foreignization or domestication whenever they meet a cultural gap. This was evident in one of the translation projects of stories originally written in my mother tongue Lulogooli (one of the Luhya dialects), translated to Swahili and later to English. In light of the translation experience in the project, this paper is discussing the human face of the translator amidst the need to remain as loyal as possible to the content of the original text and communicating accurately to the target language group. While reading any translated text, how often do we stop to think about the human behind the translation? Do we consider them as social agents in their own right? As groups with its own interest, attitudes, and identity or power relations. It is important to acknowledge the fact that the translated text is as good as the translator in his/her quest to understand man in different lenses through the expansion and sharing of knowledge and cultures.

Difficulties and Suggestions in TCM Translation based on Acculturation Theory

This study analyzes the main problems and obstacles in TCM translation, including cultural and linguistic barriers, shortage of professional translators, and lack of unified standards. To clear these obstacles, based on the theory of acculturation, this study analyzes the corresponding methods of TCM translation from four aspects: cultural separation, cultural marginalization, cultural integration, and cultural assimilation, starting from the target language group's identity and tendency toward its original culture and the mainstream culture (TCM). In doing so, the differences between Chinese and Western cultures may be balanced by TCM translation and the international spread of TCM culture may be promoted.

Syrian refugees’ perception of barriers and bridges towards integration into Turkish society

ABSTRACTPopulation displacements have occurred in tremendous amounts in the last few decades due to the collapse in civil order of the neighbouring countries of Turkey. This situation not only created a need for researchers to deal with the social, psychological and economical aspects of this forced mobility, but also with the acculturation process of the refugees who left their home owing to serious human rights violations. Because they do not occupy a great space in the policy agendas, they are an ‘invisible’ group. This poses a major problem that there are no specific theories regarding the second language acquisition process of refugees, because they are considered together with all immigrants although their experiences distinguish them from other groups. Thus, feeling the need to be the voice of this unvoiced group with their SLA experiences and witnessing the swiftly changing dynamics in the world, the Middle East in particular, and its impact on the sociocultural context, this paper concentrates on the perceptions of Syrian refugees about the L2 (Turkish) and the target language group (Turkish people).

Patient responses to research recruitment and follow-up surveys: findings from a diverse multicultural health care setting in Qatar.

BackgroundHealth care researchers working in the Arabian Gulf need information on how to optimize recruitment and retention of study participants in extremely culturally diverse settings. Implemented in Doha, Qatar in 2012 with 4 language groups, namely Arabic, English, Hindi, and Urdu, this research documents persons’ responses to recruitment, consent, follow-up, and reminder procedures during psychometric testing of the Multicultural Assessment Instrument (MAI), a novel self- or interviewer-administered survey.MethodsBilingual research assistants recruited adults in outpatient clinics by approaching persons in particular who appeared to be from a target language group. Participants completed the MAI, a second acculturation instrument used for content-validity assessment, and a demographics questionnaire. Participants were asked to take the MAI again in 2–3 weeks, in person or by post, to assess test-retest reliability. Recruitment data were analyzed by using nonparametric statistics.ResultsOf 1503 persons approached during recruitment, 400 enrolled (27 %)—100 per language group. The enrollment rates in the language groups were: Arabic-32 %; English-33 %; Hindi-18 %; Urdu-30 %. The groups varied somewhat in their preferences regarding consent procedure, follow-up survey administration, contact mode for follow-up reminders, and disclosure of personal mailing address (for postal follow-up). Over all, telephone was the preferred medium for follow-up reminders. Of 64 persons who accepted a research assistant’s invitation for in-person follow-up, 40 participants completed the interview (follow-up rate, 63 %); among 126 persons in the postal group with a deliverable address, 29 participants mailed back a completed follow-up survey (response rate, 23 %).ConclusionsResearchers in the Arabian Gulf face challenges to successfully identify, enroll, and retain eligible study participants. Although bilingual assistants—often from the persons’ own culture—recruited face-to-face, and our questionnaire contained no health care-related content, many persons were reluctant to participate. This occurrence was observed especially at follow-up, particularly among participants who had agreed to follow-up by post.

Acculturation and Perceived Social Distance among Arabs and Saudi Arabians in an ESL Situation

<p>The main purpose of this study was to explore the perceived social distance among a small Arab community residing in a college town in the Midwest of the USA. The study examines its possible impact on the process of learning/acquiring English as a second language (ESL). It draws on the findings and contentions of the acculturation model as outlined by Schumann (1978). Three data collection procedures were employed: personal interviews, field observations, and a questionnaire. Five members of the aforementioned community were interviewed: three Saudi Arabians, and two other Arabs. The interviews were mapped against the social factors of the model as summarized by Brown (2000). Then a sum of 17 Saudi Arabian informants (graduate students) responded to a questionnaire. The findings suggest that different Arabs acculturate differently in accordance to their future plans. The persons who intend to reside in the target language (TL) culture acculturate (perceive smaller distance from the TL group) much more than those transient residents who intend to live there for a specific purpose and leave after finishing their business. The permanent residents' self-perception of their English proficiency is higher than the temporary ones.</p>

English L2 personas and the imagined global community of English users

I have Danish parents, grown up in France, lived in the UK for 10 years and now living in Holland for the past 9 years. I am a different person in each language, adapting myself to the culture of the people who speak it. I have always wondered how the language could affect the message so much. It also affects my tone of voice and my emotions. [Christina, on July 27th, 2011]I find myself being more self-depreciating and less likely to accept praise when speaking in Japanese than when speaking English. Furthermore, a colleague once told me that even if he can't hear, he can tell which language I am using from 10-15 metres away, by looking at my posture, gestures and general body language. [Tim, on July 27th, 2011]My friends once told me that when I switch to Russian even my facial features change, becoming colder and harsher – set jaw, narrow eyes, speaking in a low voice, but with an intensity that makes everyone else listen. [Julia, on July 30th, 2011]The above quotations represent just a small portion of blogosphere postings from bilingual and multilingual individuals commenting on how they perceive and appear to have very distinct and separate personalities when speaking the different languages in their linguistic repertoires. Many such postings, like the first one above by Christina, explicitly attribute this phenomenon to attempts on the part of speakers to assimilate to the cultural norms of the countries where the languages are traditionally spoken. Scholarly treatments of the same phenomenon (e.g., Bryant, 1984; Hu & Reiterer, 2009; Zukowski/Faust, 1997) generally do likewise, often citing Schumann's (1978, 1986) Acculturation Model, which equates L2 proficiency with the extent to which a learner is able to adopt the culture of a target language group, and Guiora's (1967, 1979) concept of Language Ego, in which the permeability of one's L1 identity determines receptiveness to taking on new linguistic identities. According to these theories, a learner of Korean, for example, would be likely to develop a distinctly Korean L2 persona (as well as linguistic proficiency) if he or she has both a high level of affinity for Korean culture and a very permeable L1 language ego. Such arguments still, no doubt, apply to languages such as Korean or Japanese that are intrinsically associated with specific countries and cultures. Given the status of English as an international lingua franca in today's world, however, it can no longer be assumed that learners of English have any motive or desire to acculturate into traditionally English-speaking cultures, such as those of the US, England, or Australia. If learners/users of English associate the language not with such traditionally English-speaking cultures, but instead with an imagined global community of English users, do they still develop English L2 personas that are distinct from their L1 personas and feel ‘like a different person’ when speaking English?

Students' and Teachers' Perceptions of Effective Foreign Language Teaching: A Comparison of Ideals

Foreign language (FL) teachers and students may have very similar or disparate notions of effective teaching, and the intersection of the two sets of beliefs has ramifications for language learning and the effectiveness of instruction. Horwitz (1990), Kern (1995), and Schulz (1996) have argued that mismatches between FL students' and teachers' expectations can negatively affect the students' satisfaction with the language class and can potentially lead to the discontinuation of study. The principal objectives of this study were to identify and compare, overall and by teacher, teachers' and students' ideals of effective teacher behaviors. Of 83 intact 1st‐ and 2nd‐year classes across 9 languages at the University of Arizona, 49 FL teachers and their students responded to a 24‐item Likert‐scale questionnaire covering several areas of FL pedagogy. The students seemed to favor a grammar‐based approach, whereas their teachers preferred a more communicative classroom, as evidenced by significant differences in such areas as target language use, error correction, and group work. The significant discrepancies between teacher and student beliefs in several relevant areas point to the need for FL teachers to seek out their students' perspectives actively and to engage them in brief classroom discussions about the rationale behind certain instructional strategies.

Right on Target? Rethinking the Concept of the TL Group in a Canadian Hebrew Language Class

A qualitative, ethnographic investigation of a Canadian, undergraduate, advanced Hebrew course composed of heritage language learners of diverse backgrounds examined the fluctuating notion of the target language (TL) community in second language teaching. Data collection techniques of participant observation, in-depth, semi-structured focus group and individual interviews of ten students and the professor found surprising student language learning motivations that conflicted with the assumptions of the researcher and professor. Student motivations and learning goals related to their desire to integrate into particular social sub-groups in their Jewish Canadian community.

Evaluation of an ethnic media campaign on patterns of HIV testing among people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in Australia

To evaluate a 2-week pilot ethnic media campaign that was implemented in 14 languages to promote awareness of HIV/AIDS and HIV testing among selected non-English speaking populations in Australia in November/December 2000. The main outcome measure was clinic attendances for the purpose of HIV testing by individuals from the target populations at one ofthree public sexual health clinics in Sydney and Melbourne prior to and immediately after the campaign. The number of HIV tests on members of the 14 target language communities attending the clinics almost doubled from 66 to 122 tests. However, as a proportion of the total number of HIV tests performed at the three clinics this increase was not significant (16.3-18.8%; P = 0.31). For both periods in 2000 the proportion of HIV tests that were performed on members of the target language group were higher than during a 1999 comparison period (10.5%, both P < 0.01). This study did not demonstrate a significant increase in testing attributable to the pilot intervention. A larger campaign, with a more extensive evaluation, would probably be needed to demonstrate a measurable effect.

La fonction heuristique de la traduction

Translation is usually viewed as a process designed to overcome a deficiency: X translates the words of A for C, because C doesn't have an adequate command of the language in which A expressed himself. Translation so practised is usually, if not always, an entropie process. As I think I have shown in a recent article, there is a strong tendency of the text to run downhill in translation, with a demonstrable loss of ordering and coherency, an inexorable regression of form to formants, of the marked to unmarked1. There exist, however, cases where translation ceases to be a mere expedient and, far from being entropie, conserves or even enhances the ordering of the texts it brings into play. It is in such cases that translation may be said to function heuristically, by foregrounding structures taken for granted in the source text, by making the information encoded in the text more readily accessible to the target-language group than it was to the source-language group, by enhancing the repertory of esthetic forms available to the target-language group, or by stimulating the creation of new forms. A number of more or less canonical examples come to mind immediately. Ethno-linguistic translation zeroes in on what I have referred to elsewhere as the grain of the text (i.e. the micro-structures that derive from the linguistic substratum2), in order to provide insights into the functioning of languages very different from that of the target group. In hermeneutic translation, the usually subterranean work of interpretation surfaces quite explicitly in the target text, which thus functions as a gloss, making the message more readily available to the target-language reader than it was to start with in the source text3. But the heuristics of translation can go far beyond the narrow scope of such undertakings.

THE SCOPE AND CATEGORIZATION OF AFRICAN ENGLISH: SOME SOCIOLINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

This is a critical sociolinguistic perspective on traditional New English research in Africa. It is argued that New English, by its very nature, not only entails new and distinctive grammars, but also new and distinctive sociolinguistic statuses. The statuses are relational, derived from and sensitive to the relationship between a speaker and the target-language speakers. However, the New English spoken by the target language group (which includes the New English spoken by some African researchers of New Englishes themselves) which is often the accepted standard in the nation-states has not been a matter for examination. The risk is that the natural New English vernaculars could be characterized as the New English aspired for in the nation-states. In this idiom, African, Caribbean, Indian Subcontinental etc. Englishes remain nothing but dialectal aggregations of fossilized competences. By failing to investigate the addressees as a socio-cultural presence in their data, New English researchers risk removing any consideration of target-language speakers, and shut down on any critical awareness of themselves (if they are African researchers) as true, competent or legitimate representatives of the group natural New English vernacular speakers aspire to. At the phonological level, African English vowels and consonants are often treated as if they belonged to the English phoneme system. This in effect could distort the data in African English research, so that if it is not biased to the space between a natural New English vernacular speaker and his grammar, it is erroneously overgeneralized.

Language as a Reflection of Culture: From Literal Meaning to Conceptual Awareness

This article illustrates one approach to presenting language as a reflection of culture, taking as a topic the marked tendency in French to use negative terms to express positive concepts. Negation in French becomes a fertile source of pedagogical activities since it allows reflection upon at least three points to help students go beyond the mere grammatical context: first, a rich repertoire of negative elements not found in other languages; second, a preference in French toward the use of negative constructions in situations where the same ideas could be expressed in the affirmative ("Ce n'est pas mal"); and third, a look at negative traits commonly attributed to the French (a sense of distrust). As students become more aware of these phenomena, they will be in a position to begin to search for more subtle insights into the values, attitudes, and lifestyles of the target language group.

Research on the acculturation model for second language acquisition

This paper presents a model of second language acquisition based on the social‐psychology of acculturation. The model maintains that certain social and psychological variables cluster into a single variable, acculturation. The model predicts that learners will acquire the target language to the degree they acculturate to the target language group. Six studies that, in various, ways seek to test the Acculturation Model are reviewed and evaluated. Technical problems that affect such research are discussed, and the current status of the model is assessed.

Correlates of self-confidence with English among Chinese students in Toronto.

The relation between Chinese students' self-ratings of confidence with and indicators of assimilation and psychological adjustment, respectively, were examined. Factor analysis revealed that confidence with English was positively associated with linguistic assimilation into English-Canadian society and with several components of psychological adjustment (e.g., sense of personal control, selfesteem). Indicators of cultural assimilation (e.g., social distance toward anglophone groups) and involvement in the Chinese community were not, however, related to confidence with English. This pattern of findings suggests that for some minorities in Canada, self-rated confidence with the language of the majority group is not necessarily indicative of the loss of ethno-cultural identity by its members. Research on bilingualism in Canada has demonstrated that the acquisition of a second language is related to ability as well as motivational factors. Among Canadian anglophones learning French, two independent factors have repeatedly been found in factor analytic studies to be relevant to second language acquisition: language aptitude and a factor described as an integrative motive — i.e., a positive orientation towards acquiring a second language and a positive attitude towards the target language group (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Similarly, among Canadian francophones learning language aptitude and motivation have been identified as correlates of second language acquisition (Clement, Gardner & Smythe, 1977, 1980; Clement, Major, Gardner & Smythe, 1977). Moreover, these researchers have found two factors pertaining to the motivational aspect of second language acquisition: the integrative motive factor obtained previously and a factor labelled with English, that is defined by high self-ratings of English proficiency and the absence of anxiety when speaking English. This latter factor has been found to be correlated positively with degree of competence in the second language. Clement and his associates proposed that the self-confidence factor was pertinent for Canadian francophones learning English but not for Canadian anglophones learning French. This research was made possible by a Chinese-Canadian History and/or Culture Fellowship to the first author, a SSHRC Sabbatical Leave Fellowship to the second author, and a University of Toronto research grant to the second and third authors. Thanks are due to Bernard C.K. Choi for assistance in back translation of the survey questionnaire from Chinese to English. Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to the authors, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A1. CANAD. J. BEHAV. SCI./REV. CANAD. SCI. COMP. 17 (4), 1985 370 PAK, DION & DION They suggested that this pattern of findings could be interpreted in terms of ethnolinguistic (Giles, Bourhis & Taylor, 1977). Ethnolinguistic vitality refers to the social structural characteristics of a language and its speakers in a society, e.g., its relative prestige, demographic representation, and degree of institutional support. Giles and his associates argued that one possible consequence for members of a language group with low vitality (low prestige, little institutional support, members of language group scattered) is their assimilation into a language group that has greater vitality. Although they have majority status in Quebec, francophones are a linguistic minority in North American society. Clement et al. (1980) suggested that francophones who showed self-confidence with English had perhaps given up membership in the French-Canadian group, were no longer concerned about the loss of their French-Canadian identity, and were comfortable with their commitment to the second language group. In essence, Clement and his associates suggested that self-confidence with the majority language on the part of minority group members may be indicative of assimilation into the language group of the majority. In the present study, we tested this hypothesis with a different minority group in Canada, viz., Chinese university students in Toronto. If a minority's self-confidence with English is symptomatic of assimilation into the majority's language/cultural group, one would expect that those Chinese students who feel more confident with English would report less involvement in the Chinese community and show less social distance to members of the anglophone community. The present study also extended beyond previous research in another regard by examining the relation between self-rated confidence with English and several components of psychological adjustment (e.g., reported stress, self-esteem, sense of personal control). For members of an minority, confidence with the majority group's language should be accompanied by a greater feeling of personal efficacy. Measures of psychological adjustment were expected, therefore, to be positively related to Chinese students' feelings of proficiency in English. To address these issues, we asked a sample of Chinese students at the University of Toronto to complete a questionnaire assessing a number of domains including self-rated English proficiency, participation in the Chinese community, attitude toward the Chinese community, social distance toward the majority and other minority groups, and psychological adjustment. These variables were factor analyzed to test our hypotheses concerning the relation of self-rated confidence with English to measures of assimilation and psychological adjustment, respectively.

INTEGRATIVE MOTIVATION: CAUSE OR RESULT OF SUCCESSFUL SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION?

This study examines the relationship between integrative motivation and acquired second language proficiency among a group of Spanish‐speaking kindergartners in an American classroom. Integrative motivation was measured by finding out the children's preferences for friends and playmates and workmates and scoring them according to their tendencies to nominate members of the target language group. Communicative English proficiency was assessed by analyzing spontaneous language and deriving measures of structural knowledge, vocabulary breadth, and pronunciation skill. A Kendall's tau test showed no positive association between integrative motivation and acquired English proficiency. A further comparison of beginners and advanced level English speakers found that the advanced children showed significantly more integrative orientation to the target language group than the beginners, lending support to the notion that integrative attitudes follow second language acquisition skills rather than promoting them.

THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: ANOTHER POINT OF VIEW1

The present research tested the hypothesis that predictions concerning second language (SL) achievement and use would be improved by considering the motivational support the learner expects from the target language group (TL) in addition to considering the learner's own motivations for learning the language. The hypothesis was tested by asking adolescent English‐speaking Canadian students why they were learning French as a second language and why French‐speaking Canadians wanted them to learn French. Regression analyses were used to examine the relationships between the motivational predictors and the respondents' SL proficiency and use. In support of the hypothesis, it was found that the respondents' expectations of motivational support from the TL group emerged as significant and in some cases unique predictors of SL performance. It is concluded that social psychological models of SL learning need to consider the role of intergroup factors more seriously.

Social Styles and the Second Language Acquisition of Spanish-Speaking Kindergartners

Previous studies that have examined the relationship between personality factors and second language acquisition have yielded contradictory findings. However, when these studies are divided according to whether they examined natural communicative language as compared with formal tested language, it becomes clear that certain personal characteristics are consistently related to successful language learning. The present study examines seven such characteristics in connection with success at acquiring certain communicative language skills among thirteen Spanish-speaking kindergartners who began the school year with almost no English. The question of motivation to be a part of the target language group and preference for English speakers as playmates and friends is also discussed on the basis of sociometric evidence. Contrary to previous conclusions (e.g., WongFillmore 1976), the faster learners did not seek to befriend or identify more with English speakers than did the slower learners. Faster learners, however, were more talkative, responsive, and gregarious than slower learners. Implications of these findings for teachers and researchers are discussed. This study attempts to discover some of the reasons why young children from similar backgrounds will acquire a second language at markedly different rates and with varying degrees of success. Studies by Wong-Fillmore (1976), and Cathcart, Strong, and Fillmore (1979) have already shown that, within a given time period, in any group some children will become able to communicate comfortably, some will learn enough to get by, and some will acquire hardly any skills in the second language. Recently, much second language research (reviewed in Long 1982) has suggested that language learners who can maintain communicative interactions with native speakers experience the optimal conditions for improving their skills in the new language. The focus of most of this

Cultural Dominance and EFL

One of the important parameters of Schumann’s “ Acculturation Model” for target language acquisition is cultural dominance (or subordination) described in terms of the status of the target language learning group in rela­ tion to the target language group.1 According to Schumann, unfavorable language learning situations exist where the target language learning group is either dominant or subordinate with respect to the target language group. These situations themselves, in the light of his cross-cultural illustrations, characterize not only immigrants and minority groups but also those who are learning the target language in its own setting for academic or occupa­ tional purposes.

German Cafe—Theater: A Venture in Experiential Learning

ABSTRACT After eight years, Cafe‐Theaterabend (Cafe‐Theater Evening) has become a tradition at Westmar College. It is an application of the theory that the goal of public performance can be used as a motivating tool in foreign language learning as well as in extracurricular activities. Skills are developed and strengthened through planning, rehearsing, and performing. Participation in this special event increases the identification on the part of students with the target language group. The inclusion of this type of activity as an integral part of the curriculum is both justifiable and advisable. An additional benefit is that on‐campus visibility of the German program is increased, stimulating enthusiasm and helping to maintain enrollments.

THE RELATIONSHIP OF PIDGINIZATION, CREOLIZATION AND DECREOLIZATION TO SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION1

Schumann (1974) proposed that the pidginization process be used as a model for early second language acquisition (SLA) and that creolization serve as a model for the later stages of SLA. Subsequently, Schumann (1975, 1976, in press) elaborated the pidginization model arguing that social and psychological distance from the target language group cause persistence of pidginization in the speech of a second language learner. Stauble (1977) (following a suggestion by Bickerton 1975) has presented evidence that the process of decreolization is parallel to SLA. This paper attempts to reconcile these views by arguing that pidginization can account for early SLA, decreolization can account for the later stages of SLA and that creolization is inappropriate as a model for any aspect of the SLA process.In addition, this paper speaks to the issue of just what constitutes legitimate pidginization. Flick and Gilbert (1976) and Meisel (1975) have criticized the analogy between pidginization and SLA, but their arguments appear to be based on a narrow view of pidginization which equates the pidginization process with pidgin languages. This paper presents arguments for a broader view of pidginization (Samarin 1971) which can account for both early SLA and the formation of true pidgins.