Tapping Rate Research Articles

Individual recovery profiles of manual dexterity, and relation to corticospinal lesion load and excitability after stroke –a longitudinal pilot study

In this longitudinal pilot study, we investigated how manual dexterity recovery was related to corticospinal tract (CST) injury and excitability, in six patients undergoing conventional rehabilitation. Key components of manual dexterity, namely finger force control, finger tapping rate and independence of finger movements, were quantified. Structural MRI was obtained to calculate CST lesion load. CST excitability was assessed by measuring rest motor threshold (RMT) and the amplitude of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Measurements were obtained at two weeks, three and six months post-stroke. At six months post-stroke, complete recovery of hand gross motor impairment (i.e., maximal Fugl-Meyer score for hand) had occurred in three patients and four patients had recovered ability to accurately control finger force. However, tapping rate and independence of finger movements remained impaired in all six patients at six months. Recovery in hand gross motor impairment and finger force control occurred in patients with smaller CST lesion load and almost complete recovery of CST excitability, although RMT or MEP size remained slightly altered in the stroke-affected hemisphere compared to the unaffected hemisphere. The two patients with poorest recovery showed persistent absence of MEPs and greatest structural injury to CST. The findings support good motor recovery being overall correlated with smaller CST lesion, and with almost complete recovery of CST excitability. However, impairment of manual dexterity persisted despite recovery in gross hand movements and grasping abilities, suggesting involvement of additional brain structures for fine manual tasks.

Investigating the interference pattern of dual tasks using serial decomposition.

Specific investigation of dual task-interference (DTI) may help researchers to develop the optimal training exercise for enhancing the performance of daily activities. To reveal the DTI by comparing the performances between personalized single tasks (cognitive or motor task) and dual task with serial decomposition in normal healthy adults. After a preliminary period, healthy participants randomly (n = 46) performed three computerized experiments of cognitive (CT), motor (MT) and dual tasks (DT). In CT, participants were required to release button 1 (BT1) as rapidly as possible when the font color of a word and its meaning were congruent (Go), and in MT, they had to release BT1 and then tap button 2 (BT2) 10 times as rapidly as possible if the symbol "○" was presented (Go). The DT consisted of a combination of CT and MT elements. The reaction time (RT) of correct releases (RTCR) of BT1 in all tasks was measured, as well as the button shifting time between releasing BT1 and pressing BT2, and the finger tapping rate in MT and DT. To obtain the DTI values, we calculated the RTCR ratio in CT and MT and divided the outcome by the RTCR of DT. The ratio of RTCR in CT (% CT/DT, 78.6±13.0%) and MT (% MT/DT, 74.2±10.1%) were significantly lower than the ratio of RTCR in DT (% DT/DT, 100%). The button shifting time of MT was at 92.0±23.7% of baseline, and the finger tapping rate of MT was 106.1±19.1%, which was significantly higher than baseline. The % DT/DT is significantly higher than both % CT/DT and % MT/DT, which suggests that the cognitive load depends on the type of cognitive task that is being performed. Additionally, the significant increase of % DT/DT compared to % CT/DT indicated that there is a cognitive load prior to a motor task. The increased button shifting time and decreased tapping rate in DT may indicate that a residual cognitive load and a concurrent motor load were present.

Verification motor and cognitive load in dual task interference

Verification of motor and cognitive load in DTI can show the cognitive or motor impact separately on the DT to consist the coping strategies for the daily performances. Computerized 3 experiments of cognitive (CT), motor (MT) and dual tasks (DT) were randomly tested in participants. All participants ( n = 46) were educated to press the button 1 (BT1) during preparing period. In CT, participants should release the BT1 as fast as possible if congruent letters in meaning and color of letter (Go), or they should press the BT1 consistently if incongruent. In MT, participants should release the BT1 and then tap the BT2 10 times as fast as possible if intuitive “○” was presented (Go), or press the BT1 consistently if “X” was presented. In DT, the Go trials of MT were changed with those of CT. The reaction time (RT) of correct releases of BT1 in all tasks, the button shifting time between BT1 release and BT2 press, and finger tapping rate in MT and DT were also measured. Then the ratio of RT of CR in CT and MT over DT were calculated to represent the DTI. The ratio of RT of CR in CT (78.6 ± 13.0%, P < 0.001), and MT (74.2 ± 10.1%, P < 0.001) were significantly decreased compared to those of DT (100%). The button shifting time of MT was 92.0 ± 23.7% of that of DT ( P = 0.027), and the finger tapping rate of MT was increased up to 106.1 ± 19.1% of that of DT ( P = 0.036). Significant decreases in ratio of RT of CR in CT and MT show the both residual cognitive load and preceding motor load. The ratio of button shifting time and finger tapping rate in MT shows the superimposed tapering residual cognitive load on motor task.

An Evaluation Of The Foot Tapping Test (ftt) In A Health Population

Simple in nature, the foot tapping test (FTT) has potential as an objective measure of upper motor function. Despite this, the reliability of the FTT has not been well identified. Furthermore, it is uncertain as to how to best measure the FTT as number of foot taps may vary upon counting methods. In order to make the FTT more clinically relevant, more research must be done on the FTT in healthy individuals in order to determine if it is a reliable measure of foot tapping ability. PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to investigate reliability measures of the FTT in a healthy population using a variety of different measurement and counting methods. By identifying the reliability of the different measurement methods we hope to be able to make recommendations for future FTT research. METHODS: 20 healthy individuals, ages of 18-31, completed a series of foot tapping trials over 4 visits. While seated, subjects tapped their foot repeatedly for 10 seconds while researchers counted the number of foot taps. Starting foot was randomized for each visit and tested twice with shoes ON and twice with shoes OFF (8 trials * 4 visits = 32 trials per subject). The number of foot taps was determined for each trial via visual inspection, video playback (slowed and normal speed), and with the use of a force plate. The mean values of the FTT trials were compared across days, dominant vs. non-dominant foot, the shoes ON/OFF conditions, and with the different counting methods. RESULTS: Significant differences were found in foot tapping rates in the shoes ON (mean: 54.3 taps) vs shoes OFF (mean: 53.4 taps) and dominate vs. non-dominant (mean: 51.1 taps) foot analyses (p<0.05). Furthermore it was found that a significant difference in the mean number of foot taps existed between visit 1 (mean: 51.2 taps) and visits 2, 3, and 4 (mean: 54.3, 53.5, and 46.7 taps respectively) (p>0.05). It was found that the FTT exhibited high test-retest reliability (Pearson r >0.80) and high Cronbach’s alpha (alpha >0.80) across the live, slowed video counts, and force plate measurements. CONCLUSION: It was found that the FTT exhibits a high level of reliability across the live, slowed video, and force plate measures with both the shoes ON and shoes OFF. Given the observed reliability, the use of force plate with the FTT offers an attractive alternative to live counting or video playback methods.

Suppression of EEG mu rhythm during action observation corresponds with subsequent changes in behavior

Movement is intrinsically linked to perception such that observing an action induces in the observer behavioral changes during execution of similar actions. Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have revealed that at the group level, action observation suppresses oscillatory power in mu (8–12 Hz) and beta (15–25 Hz) bands over the sensorimotor cortex – a phenomenon associated with increased excitability of cortical neurons. However, it is unclear whether differences in suppression level across individuals is linked with individual differences in subsequent behavioral changes. Here 32 subjects performed self-paced finger tapping with their right hand before and after observation of a video displaying finger-tapping at either 2 or 4 Hz. Behaviorally, subjects’ rate of self-pace tapping increased following observation, with higher increases following 4 Hz observation. The level of EEG power suppression in the low frequency range (low mu; 8–10 Hz) during observation corresponded to subsequent behavioral changes in tapping rate across individuals. Our results demonstrate that observing actions implicitly shifts subsequent execution rates, and that individual differences in the level of this implicit shift can be explained by activity in the sensorimotor cortex during observation.

Development of manual dexterity in preschool children

PurposeThe aim of the study is to identify the changes in manual dexterity that occur in preschool children.MethodsThe sample consisted of 79 healthy preschool children from Wroclaw, Poland. Manual dexterity was assessed twice: at the beginning of the school year and 9 months later at the end. The mean age of the group was 5.98 ± 0.45 years (initial assessment) and 6.86 ± 0.35 years (final assessment). Motor performance was evaluated with the &lt;i&gt;Motorische Leistungsserie&lt;/i&gt; (MLS) test. Statistical analysis was carried out with ANOVA, and the percentage change of each parameter was calculated for the 9-month study period. Differences were considered significant at &lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.05.ResultsThere was a 45% improvement in steadiness, which shows that the children were more able to hold their hands in a given position without shaking for a prolonged time. The children made significant progress in grasping and carrying small objects with fingers and placing them in sequential openings on the work surface of the test apparatus in a vertical line, performing better than adults in this regard. The results for the aiming subtest improved by over 20% in the children examined. The rate of tapping increased by almost 8%. Improvements in line tracing, however, were limited to the accuracy of performing the subtest.ConclusionsThe results of the study reveal the need for longitudinal studies on this topic. Selected parameters of manual dexterity in preschool children improved from 4% to 45% over the course of the 9-month school year.

Importance of synergistic role of cobalt and aluminum on a greatly improved electrochemical performance of Li-rich oxyfluoride spinel at elevated-temperature

Spinel LiMn2O4 cathode material has been successfully commercialized for various lithium ion batteries (LIBs) and is a very promising candidate for emerging large-scale applications in pure electric vehicles (EVs). Despite its advantages, LiMn2O4 suffers from fast capacity fading at elevated temperature stemming from Mn dissolution and structural distortion. Herein, an investigation on the structure and electrochemical performance of single/double/triple-ion substituted Li1.05Mn1.95O4, which was synthesized by a Sol-gel method combined with heat treatment at 750 °C, was firstly carried out. Enhancements of the tap density, rate capability, and cycling performance at high temperature were achieved without sacrificing its specific capacity via unique morphology control and triple-substitution (Al3+, Co3+, and F− ions) strategy. The as-prepared Li1.05Al0.05Mn1.85Co0.05O3.9F0.1 (LAMCOF) sample exhibits a high specific capacity, a superior rate capability, and an excellent long-term cyclability at the high temperature (55 °C), with the specific discharge capacities of 115 and 110 mAh g−1 and the corresponding capacity retention of 72.3% and 73.0% for up to 800 cycles at 2 and 5 C rates, respectively. The high specific capacity, an excellent cyclability, and a superior rate performance are believed to be caused by the three main reasons: (1) improvement of the specific capacity by the substitution of O2− by F−, (2) stabilization of the crystal structure derived from the synergistic roles of triple substitution by Al3+, Co3+, and F− ions, which decreases the Jahn-Teller distortions and Mn dissolution; and (3) formation of a stable interface of the active material/electrolyte resulting from the high content of Mn4+ at the surface and its unique morphology, which reduces the charge transfer resistances and favors fast Li+ intercalation/deintercalation kinetics. The as-prepared LAMCOF sample may offer a promising cathode material for the high-power LIBs with extended cycle life and superior rate capability at elevated temperature.

Bimanual tapping of a syncopated rhythm reveals hemispheric preferences for relative movement frequencies

In bimanual multifrequency tapping, right-handers commonly use the right hand to tap the relatively higher rate and the left hand to tap the relatively lower rate. This could be due to hemispheric specializations for the processing of relative frequencies. An extension of the double-filtering-by-frequency theory to motor control proposes a left hemispheric specialization for the control of relatively high and a right hemispheric specialization for the control of relatively low tapping rates. We investigated timing variability and rhythmic accentuation in right handers tapping mono- and multifrequent bimanual rhythms to test the predictions of the double-filtering-by-frequency theory. Yet, hemispheric specializations for the processing of relative tapping rates could be masked by a left hemispheric dominance for the control of known sequences. Tapping was thus either performed in an overlearned quadruple meter (tap of the slow rhythm on the first auditory beat) or in a syncopated quadruple meter (tap of the slow rhythm on the fourth auditory beat). Independent of syncopation, the right hand outperformed the left hand in timing accuracy for fast tapping. A left hand timing benefit for slow tapping rates as predicted by the double-filtering-by-frequency theory was only found in the syncopated tapping group. This suggests a right hemisphere preference for the control of slow tapping rates when rhythms are not overlearned. Error rates indicate that overlearned rhythms represent hierarchically structured meters that are controlled by a single timer that could potentially reside in the left hemisphere.

Auditory-Motor Rhythms and Speech Processing in French and German Listeners.

Moving to a speech rhythm can enhance verbal processing in the listener by increasing temporal expectancies (Falk and Dalla Bella, 2016). Here we tested whether this hypothesis holds for prosodically diverse languages such as German (a lexical stress-language) and French (a non-stress language). Moreover, we examined the relation between motor performance and the benefits for verbal processing as a function of language. Sixty-four participants, 32 German and 32 French native speakers detected subtle word changes in accented positions in metrically structured sentences to which they previously tapped with their index finger. Before each sentence, they were cued by a metronome to tap either congruently (i.e., to accented syllables) or incongruently (i.e., to non-accented parts) to the following speech stimulus. Both French and German speakers detected words better when cued to tap congruently compared to incongruent tapping. Detection performance was predicted by participants' motor performance in the non-verbal cueing phase. Moreover, tapping rate while participants tapped to speech predicted detection differently for the two language groups, in particular in the incongruent tapping condition. We discuss our findings in light of the rhythmic differences of both languages and with respect to recent theories of expectancy-driven and multisensory speech processing.

Numerical Analysis on Flow Behavior of Molten Iron and Slag in Main Trough of Blast Furnace during Tapping Process

The three-dimensional model was developed according to number 4 of the main trough of blast furnace at China Steel Co. (CSC BF4). The k-ε equations and volume of fluid (VOF) were used for describing the turbulent flow at the impinging zone of trough, indicating fluids of liquid iron, molten slag, and air in the governing equation, respectively, in this paper. The pressure field and velocity profile were then obtained by the finite volume method (FVM) and the pressure implicit with splitting of operators (PISO), respectively, followed by calculating the wall shear stress through Newton’s law of viscosity for validation. Then, the operation conditions and the main trough geometry were numerically examined for the separation efficiency of iron from slag stream. As shown in the results, the molten iron losses associated with the slag can be reduced by increasing the height difference between the slag and iron ports, reducing the tapping rate, and increasing the height of the opening under the skimmer.

Differential responses of spinal motoneurons to fatigue induced by short-lasting repetitive and isometric tasks

Compared to isometric activities, the neural basis of fatigue induced by repetitive tasks has been scarcely studied. Recently, we showed that during short-lasting repetitive tasks at the maximal possible rate (finger tapping for 10 and 30s), tapping rate and maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force decrease at the end of finger tapping. We also observed larger silent periods (SP) induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation during MVC post finger tapping. However, if SP were induced by cervicomedullary stimulation (CMS) they remained unchanged. This suggested a supraspinal origin of fatigue for repetitive tasks. Nevertheless, CMS SP only partially explore spinal excitability; therefore, to evaluate a spinal origin of fatigue it is essential to know the features of the CMS-evoked potentials (CMEP). Herein, we evaluated (n=15) the amplitude of the CMEP during MVC executed immediately (no gap) after a short-lasting finger tapping task; we also evaluated the compound muscle action potential (CMAP) so that the amplitude of the CMEP was expressed as a function of the CMAP amplitude. Indices of fatigue obtained during finger tapping were compared with those obtained during short-lasting maximal isometric tasks. While indices of excitability increased initially in both tasks, they decreased with the isometric task only when the task was prolonged to 30s. We suggest that the inability to maintain increased levels of spinal excitability during task execution is a neurophysiological mark of fatigue. Our results suggest that the origin of fatigue induced by brief and fast repetitive tasks is not spinal.

EP 92. Measuring force in fingertapping: A novel tool to detect motor fatigue

Introduction The Fingertapping-task (FT) is a simple tool to evaluate complex aspects of motor function in a clinical as well as research setting. FT provides information about motor function and deterioration (Shimoyama, 1990). FT tapping rate (FT-speed) is recorded as a correlate for performance with reduced rates corresponding to a decline of function. Motor fatigue (MF) is usually studied by employing a maximum voluntary contraction task and decline of function is defined as reduced force output. Yet, there are few studies focusing on motor fatigue in more complex (repetitive) motor tasks like FT and modified FT-force. We hypothesize reduced FT-force in a standard FT-task will reflect task specific motor fatigue providing additional information to FT-speed. Methods We recorded the FT-force in healthy subjects in a standard FT-task (right and left first dorsal interosseous (FDI), 30 s repetitive sessions) via a morse key equipped with a 1 N force sensor. We hypothesized that as a correlate for motor fatigue the FT-speed and FT-force would decline over time. Results From the continuous force signal data FT tap-intervals were derived and compared to FT tap-intervals defined by a closed circuit (morse key). Results show a very high reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient 0.98). A significant decrease of FT-speed over time in the respective session (intrasession) was seen ( p 0.01 ), that was more prominent in the non-dominant hand. A significant enhancement in FT-force over time was seen within and between FT sessions ( p 0.01 ). This effect was more prominent in the non-dominant hand. Surprisingly, the effects of FT-force and FT-speed were not correlated. Discussion We could show that the assessment of tapping force in the standard FT-task provides additional novel information about motor fatigue not only within, but also between FT-task sessions, that is clearly independent of FT-speed. The increase in FT-force seems counterintuitive, yet is in line with previous definitions of motor fatigue (Edwards, 1980) when interpreted as a correlate for increasing effort and central compensatory mechanisms. Measuring the FT-force in a standard FT-task is a novel and easy to use tool, which might reflect central compensatory mechanisms, could be used in a clinical setting to detect early symptoms of fatigue in various disease entities and we believe deserves further investigation and neurophysiological characterization.

Synchrony and emotion in children and adults.

This study examined both the development of synchronisation activities and the way emotion affects these activities in children and adults. Children aged from 3 to 8 years, as well as adults, performed a spontaneous motor tempo (SMT) task and a synchronisation task with a 500-millisecond and 700-millisecond inter-stimulus interval (ISI), followed by a continuation task, in both an emotion-free and an emotional context (High-Arousal, Low-Arousal, and Neutral). The results showed that the SMT was faster and more variable in the younger children. In addition, the younger children found it more difficult to slow down their tapping rate in synchrony with the 700-millisecond ISI, with the result that they quickly returned to their internal tempo in the continuation phase. In contrast, the 8-year-olds' synchronisation performance was close to that of the adults. However, despite developmental changes in synchronisation skills, all the participants produced faster tempi in both the SMT and the synchronisation task for the High-Arousal emotion than for the other emotions. This suggests that emotions induce an automatic distortion of motor timing as has also been observed for the perception of time.

Commentary: Cumulative effects of anodal and priming cathodal tDCS on pegboard test performance and motor cortical excitability.

Commentary: Cumulative effects of anodal and priming cathodal tDCS on pegboard test performance and motor cortical excitability.

Essential tremor, the olivocerebellar system and motor timing – An fMRI study

Background Essential tremor (ET) is the most common tremor disorder. It has been repeatedly shown that the olivocerebellar system is involved in ET, consisting of the inferior olive nucleus (ION), dentate nucleus (DN) and cerebellar cortex. Impairment of the central timing mechanism in ET has been suggested. The olivocerebellar system plays an important role in motor timing. In order to study the functional involvement of this system in ET, we employed a task involving motor timing during functional MRI (fMRI). Methods Thirty propranolol sensitive ET patients with familial upper limb tremor and 30 healthy controls were included. T2 ∗ -weighted EPI sequences were acquired (180 volumes, TR: 2s, voxel size: 3.5 × 3.5 × 3.5 mm, 3TMRI). The task consisted of alternating rest and finger tapping (rate of 2 Hz) blocks. Task performance was measured by electromyography. Analysis was performed in SPM8 (standard preprocessing, normalization according to the spatially unbiased infra-tentorial template, 4 mm smoothing kernel). The left ION was localized with a conjunction analysis of patients and controls. For this abstract, quantified tapping performance is not yet incorporated. Results Within-group random-effects analysis restricted to the brainstem and cerebellum showed activations throughout the cerebellum (bilateral lobules V, VI, VIIIA) and in both left and right ION. Preliminary between-group analysis of the ION and CB right lobule VI showed significantly higher activations in controls compared to ET patients. Conclusions Exploratory analysis suggests altered activity in the olivocerebellar system in ET patients compared to controls during a motor timing task. Inclusion of task performance and effective connectivity analysis will be carried out to aid us in discriminating between altered activity due to task performance and pathological motor timing related to ET. Understanding the role of the olivocerebellar system in ET is of great importance for unraveling the mechanism of tremor genesis.

Parallel streams versus integrated timing in multilimb pattern generation: A test of Korte's Third Law.

Skilled drummers performed a 4:3:2 polyrhythm with 2 hands and 1 foot. For each pair of limbs patterns of temporal covariation were used to infer relatively independent parallel streams versus integrated timing relationships. Parallel timing was more prevalent between hand and foot than between the 2 hands, and parallel timing generally increased with tapping rate. Different combinations of integrated and parallel timing were found among the 3 limbs. A second experiment used a wider range of tapping rates and explored 3:2 tapping with 2 hands, 2 feet, or hand and foot. The latter 2 limb pairs resulted in greater prevalence of parallel timing. These results can be interpreted in terms of a Gestalt principle of grouping known as Korte's Third Law, which can be extended from the perceptual domain to the perceptual-motor domain. This principle indicates that perceived velocity is a key factor in determining whether a sequence of events is represented as a single integrated pattern or as multiple parallel patterns. The present results put disparate previous findings on bimanual polyrhythmic tapping and rhythmic aspects of the golf swing under a common theoretical perspective. (PsycINFO Database Record

Effects of Anodal High-Definition Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Bilateral Sensorimotor Cortex Activation During Sequential Finger Movements: An fNIRS Study.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive electrical brain stimulation technique that can modulate cortical neuronal excitability and activity. This study utilized functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) neuroimaging to determine the effects of anodal high-definition (HD)-tDCS on bilateral sensorimotor cortex (SMC) activation. Before (Pre), during (Online), and after (Offline) anodal HD-tDCS (2mA, 20min) targeting the left SMC, eight healthy subjects performed a simple finger sequence (SFS) task with their right or left hand in an alternating blocked design (30-s rest and 30-s SFS task, repeated five times). In order to determine the level of bilateral SMC activation during the SFS task, an Oxymon MkIII fNIRS system was used to measure from the left and right SMC, changes in oxygenated (O2Hb) and deoxygenated (HHb) haemoglobin concentration values. The fNIRS data suggests a finding that compared to the Pre condition both the "Online" and "Offline" anodal HD-tDCS conditions induced a significant reduction in bilateral SMC activation (i.e., smaller decrease in HHb) for a similar motor output (i.e., SFS tap rate). These findings could be related to anodal HD-tDCS inducing a greater efficiency of neuronal transmission in the bilateral SMC to perform the same SFS task.

Secrets of virtuoso: neuromuscular attributes of motor virtuosity in expert musicians.

Musical performance requires extremely fast and dexterous limb movements. The underlying biological mechanisms have been an object of interest among scientists and non-scientists for centuries. Numerous studies of musicians and non-musicians have demonstrated that neuroplastic adaptations through early and deliberate musical training endowed superior motor skill. However, little has been unveiled about what makes inter-individual differences in motor skills among musicians. Here we determined the attributes of inter-individual differences in the maximum rate of repetitive piano keystrokes in twenty-four pianists. Among various representative factors of neuromuscular functions, anatomical characteristics, and training history, a stepwise multiple regression analysis and generalized linear model identified two predominant predictors of the maximum rate of repetitive piano keystrokes; finger tapping rate and muscular strength of the elbow extensor. These results suggest a non-uniform role of individual limb muscles in the production of extremely fast repetitive multi-joint movements. Neither age of musical training initiation nor the amount of extensive musical training before age twenty was a predictor. Power grip strength was negatively related to the maximum rate of piano keystrokes only during the smallest tone production. These findings highlight the importance of innate biological nature and explicit training for motor virtuosity.

Auscultate, palpate and tap: time to re-evaluate.

To determine the accuracy of current methods of heart rate (HR) assessment. All participants palpated a simulated pulsating umbilicus (UMB), listened to a tapping rate (TAP) and auscultated a simulated HR (AUSC). A simulated HR of 54, 88 and 128 beats per minute (bpm) was randomised for all methods. Twenty-nine healthcare staff participated in this study. Correct assessment of HR of 54 bpm as being within the 0-59 range occurred in 17.2% UMB, 17.2% TAP and 31% AUSC and was obtained in <10 seconds by 48.3%, 65.5% and 62.1%, respectively. A rate of 88 bpm was correctly assessed as within the 60-100 range in 82.8% UMB, 79.3% TAP and 79.3% AUSC and was obtained in <10 seconds by 55.2%, 58.6% and 55.2%, respectively. A rate of 128 bpm was identified as >100 bpm by 96.6% UMB, 93.1% TAP, and 93.1% AUSC and was obtained in <10 seconds by 51.7%, 55.2% and 62.1%, respectively. Current methods in assessing rates below 60 bpm are inaccurate and may overestimate HR. We recommend that these methods alone should not be relied upon in neonatal resuscitation and objective assessment of heart rate should be readily available at all newborn resuscitations.

Facile Scalable Synthesis of TiO2/Carbon Nanohybrids with Ultrasmall TiO2 Nanoparticles Homogeneously Embedded in Carbon Matrix.

A facile scalable synthesis of TiO2/C nanohybrids inspired by polymeric dental restorative materials has been developed, which creates ultrasmall TiO2 nanoparticles homogeneously embedded in the carbon matrix. The average size of the nanoparticles is tuned between about 1 and 5 nm with the carbon content systematically increased from 0% to 65%. Imaging analysis and a scattering technique have been applied to investigate the morphology of the TiO2 nanoparticles. The composition, nature of carbon matrix, crystallinity, and tap density of the TiO2/C nanohybrids have been studied. The application of the TiO2/C nanohybrids as lithium-ion battery anode is demonstrated. Unusual discharge/charge profiles have been exhibited, where characteristic discharge/charge plateaus of crystalline TiO2 are significantly diminished. The tap density, cyclic capacities, and rate performance at high current densities (10 C, 20 C) of the TiO2/C nanohybrid anodes have been effectively improved compared to the bare carbon anode and the TiO2/C nanohybrids with larger particle size.