Tapirus Indicus Research Articles

Island Life: Use of Activity Budgets and Visibility to Evaluate a Multi-Species Within-Zoo Exhibit Move.

Simple SummaryModern zoos aim to provide the best facilities possible for their animals, staff and visitors. Here, we present findings from a study focusing on the behaviour and visibility of four species pre- and post-translocation to a new environment, Islands, within Chester Zoo, UK: the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii), crested macaque (Macaca nigra), Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) and the Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). We used full activity budgets to demonstrate that the move to new, custom-built facilities influenced the behaviour of all four species. Following relocation, both non-human primate species were found to spend more time interacting socially with group members and abnormal behaviours remained low for all four species. Malayan tapirs and crested macaques chose to spend more time in areas out of public view post-move, whilst Malayan sun bears were more visible to visitors in their new environment. We demonstrate the value of giving animals choice and control over how they interact with their surroundings, the importance in investment in behavioural monitoring throughout translocation events and add to the knowledge-base of this understudied area.Modern zoos strive to construct habitats which both enable and encourage animals to engage in species-specific behaviour, without compromising their visibility to visitors. Here, we present the findings of a within-zoo move to a custom-built exhibit (Islands at Chester Zoo, UK) with respect to the behaviour of four mammal species; the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii), crested macaque (Macaca nigra), Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) and the Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). We used full activity budgets along with Compositional Data Analysis (CoDA) to gain insight into how the move to a more naturalistic exhibit influenced behaviour. Engagement in abnormal behaviour remained low during the study period for all four species, suggesting no adverse responses to the change in environment. Following the move, both the non-human primate species spent more time engaged in positive social interactions with conspecifics, highlighting the importance of social support during enclosure moves. Time spent visible to the public was largely unaffected by the enclosure move for the Sumatran orangutan, whilst the movement to a new environment increased visibility for the Malayan sun bear and decreased visibility for the crested macaque and Malayan tapir. We demonstrate the value of monitoring behaviour throughout the translocation of zoo-housed species and outline the positive behavioral impacts of providing individuals with naturalistic, species-appropriate environments.

Faecal Concentrations of Progesterone and 17β-Oestradiol of Female Malayan Tapir from Different Faecal Hormone Extraction Methods

Non-invasive hormone monitoring of endangered wildlife provides an essential tool to optimize breeding strategies, mainly in captive management. However, the protocol of reproductive hormone monitoring on pregnancy status using non-invasive faecal samples in Malayan tapir is still inconclusive. Therefore, we compared the metabolites reproductive hormones; 17β-oestradiol and progesterone in the faecal samples extracted using methods of Schwarzenberger et al. (1996) (Methods A and B), Brown et al. (2001) (Method C) and Shutt et al. (2012) (Method D) from pregnant and non-pregnant captive Malayan Tapir. Faecal samples from four female of Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus) were collected for five months at Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve (n = 2), Zoo Taiping (n = 1) and Zoo Negara (n = 1), Malaysia. Analysis by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS) confirmed that progesterone was detected in all fecal sample extracted by extraction Method A, while 17β-oestradiol was undetectable in all methods. The measurement of reproductive hormones for pregnancy status via Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) analysis showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) for progesterone between the fecal extraction methods. Yet the data obtained were not able to validate the pregnancy status, due to similarity in concentration for both pregnant and non-pregnant tapirs. While for 17β-oestradiol, significant results were observed in all extraction methods and in pregnancy status (p < 0.05). Method C was found to be the most reliable extraction method (p < 0.05) to indicate pregnancy status. From the results, it showed that solvent used, boiling process and multiphase extraction plays important role in fecal extraction process in Malayan Tapir.

Dental occlusal surface and seed dispersal evolution inTapirus(Mammalia: Perissodactyla)

AbstractMost tapirs are good seed dispersers. An exception is the Malayan tapir, Tapirus indicus, a seed predator (mainly of large seeds). Little is known about the capacity for tapirs to disperse seeds throughout their evolutionary history. We used the occlusal surface area (OSA) of tapir cheek teeth as a predictor of seed dispersal potential in living and extinct tapir species. We used T. indicus as a reference for an extant tapir that mostly eats seeds. The OSA was calculated by multiplying the maximal width and length of molars and premolars. A threshold based on T. indicus OSA was projected onto a box plot analysis and used as a predictor for tapir seed dispersal potential. Ordination and statistical results suggest that tooth morphology is uniform between Tapirus species and that size is the main factor affecting variation. Maxillary teeth show greater variation in morphology than mandibular teeth between species. The results suggest that extant South American tapirs are good seed dispersers. North American tapirs present variable OSAs, and Asian tapirs have a low capacity for dispersion. All European tapirs were probably efficient seed dispersers. We present the first morphometric evidence for seed dispersal capacity in tapirs, with ramifications for tapir palaeoecology.

ASSESSMENT OF MULTIANTIGEN PRINT IMMUNOASSAY AND RAPID LATERAL-FLOW TEST FOR THE DETECTION OF MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS INFECTION IN MALAYAN TAPIR (TAPIRUS INDICUS).

A multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) and rapid test (RT) developed and validated for detection of mycobacterial antibodies in elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana) was assessed in Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus). Retrospective analysis of banked serum from one Mycobacterium bovis infected and seven presumably uninfected tapir was performed by MAPIA and RT. A sample collected 2 mon prior to the death of a culture-confirmed M. bovis-infected tapir served as a positive control. Seroreactivity of this sample was demonstrated via both MAPIA and RT testing. Seven uninfected animals, including four without postmortem evidence of mycobacterial disease and three that remain healthy, were negative controls; none demonstrated seroreactivity to key antigens with either test. These results suggest that MAPIA and RT have potential utility for rapid detection of M. bovis infection in Malayan tapir.

Salt-lick use by wild Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus): behavior and social interactions at salt licks

Salt-lick use by wild Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus): behavior and social interactions at salt licks

CRISP protein expression in semen of the endangered Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus)

The Malayan tapir is a large endangered herbivore native to South-east Asia with fewer than 2500 animals remaining in the wild. Although a small number of animals (183 animals held by 60 institutions) are managed in zoos and breeding centres, there is limited information on the fundamental reproductive biology of this species. The purpose of this present study was to evaluate the associations of reproductive protein biomarkers (CRISP2 and CRISP3) in the seminal plasma and spermatozoa with reproductive characteristics in male Malayan tapirs. Ejaculates were collected from zoo-housed animals by electroejaculation and assessed for sperm motility and quality traits. Seminal plasma and sperm pellets were analysed for CRISP protein expression by immunoblotting. The reproductive tract of a single animal was also analysed for CRISP2 and CRISP3 protein expression and localization by immunohistochemistry. Our results showed that both CRISP2 and CRISP3 are expressed in the seminal plasma and spermatozoa derived from Malayan tapirs. CRISP expression was positively correlated with semen quality, especially ejaculate volume, number of motile sperm, and acrosomal integrity. In addition, CRISP2 and CRISP3 protein expression were slightly high in males that had recently sired an offspring. The results suggest that CRISP proteins may serve as biomarkers for ejaculate quality and fertility in male Malayan tapirs. These findings may have significant implications for planning future breeding and re-introduction efforts for this species.

Genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) populations in the Malay Peninsula based on mitochondrial DNA control region

The Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) is an endangered species in Southeast Asia (SEA). Over the years, there has only been a few reports on its population genetic structure and evolutionary history in SEA. In particular, while the captive Malayan tapir population in Thailand has received fairly more research in recent years, there has not been any wide-scale population genetic study in the Malay Peninsula since the last decade. In this study, we report on the genetic diversity and attempt to make inferences on the phylogeography of the Malayan tapir in the Malay Peninsula, using the mitochondrial DNA control region, including also data from previous studies. We identified 12 novel haplotypes and two distinct Malayan tapir clades with a divergence time of 14.6 million years ago (mya) in the Peninsular Malaysia (i.e. southern Malay Peninsula) samples, as opposed to only one clade found in the Thai (i.e. Thailand western border and northern Malay Peninsula) captive individuals, with an almost two-fold higher nucleotide diversity compared to the latter. The co-occurrence of the two lineages in southern Malay Peninsula suggested past historical events of population isolation, migration and admixture as a result of episodic glacial periods and paleoenvironmental changes in SEA. Only one haplotype shared between the populations of the two regions suggested further gene flow restriction at the narrow corridor of the Malay Peninsula as of present day.

Wildlife Crossings at Felda Aring - Tasik Kenyir Road, Malaysia

The Felda Aring - Tasik Kenyir Road was identified as one of the most threatening roads to wildlife in Malaysia. The present study was conducted to assess the road crossing activities involving the medium- to large-mammal species due to the problem stated. The objectives of this study were to (1) predict the suitability of the road and its surroundings as the roaming areas for the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus, n = 104) and Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus, n = 66), (2) identify the mammalian species inhabiting the forest beside the road, (3) compare the forest’s common species [photographic capture rate index (PCRI) > 10/ detection probability (P) ≥ 0.05] with the ones utilising the road crossing structures; the viaducts and the bridges, and (4) determine the most impacted species from traffic collisions. The road and its surroundings were classified as moderately suitable to the elephant and tapir (suitability values = 0.4 - 0.8). A total of 16 mammal species were recorded at the forest edges, in which the wild pig (Sus scrofa) (PCRI = 118.96, P = 0.3719 ± 0.027), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) (PCRI = 68.89, P = 0.2219 ± 0.0232), sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) (PCRI = 11.13, P = 0.0507 ± 0.0159), tapir (PCRI = 11.13, P = 0.0469 ± 0.0118), elephant (PCRI = 10.7, P = 0.0787 ± 0.0195) and Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyura) (PCRI = 10.7, P = 0.103 ± 0.0252) were the common species utilising the crossing structures. In contrast, the Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) were the most frequently hit species on the road [F(7,398) = 28.53, p < 0.0005]. The present study found that large-mammal species were utilising the crossing structures at a higher frequency, whereas more medium-mammal species were involved in traffic collisions.

Body Mass Prediction Model Using Skeletal Elements and Morphological Grouping

Each facet of an organism's function, such as heart rate, metabolism, organ size and function, feeding ecology, and locomotion is influenced by its body size. Using body size to estimate the size and functions of organs in extant mammals is standard and reasonably straightforward. However, estimating the body size and organ function of fossil species, particularly transitional species such as the Eocene whales, is more challenging. The Eocene whales are diverse in body size, structure, locomotion, and habitat, therefore, a single allometric model does not provide the most accurate body size estimation for each fossil whale family. This in turn leads to less accurate organ size and function assessment. The overall goal of my research is to predict the body size of the Eocene whales and use these estimates to predict other organ functions. Grouping representative modern mammals to create body mass prediction models to use for the Eocene whales is the first step in this research project. I measured the bones of the skull, vertebrae, and limbs of select species of modern aquatic, semi-aquatic, and terrestrial mammals. I then calculated an average body mass for each species represented using recorded body weights. Using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), I generated morphological groupings of these mammals from the skeletal measurements. For each PCA analysis completed, I constructed a linear regression equation to predict body size from the variables used in each analysis and the average body weight. I tested the prediction models using the measurements of 12 species representatives that were not included in the data set used to create the model, specifically Odocoileus virginianus, Tragulus napu, Hippopotamus amphibus, Tapirus indicus, Sus scrofa, Canis lupus lycaon, Nyctereutes procyonid, Ehydra lutris, Gulo gulo, Neophoca cinerea, Lobodon carinophagus, and Ursus maritimus. Through PCA I identified five morphological groups from the mammals in the data set: Aquatic, Semi-aquatic, Semi-terrestrial, Large Terrestrial and Small Terrestrial. The test mammals all fit with their species. For the prediction model using all skeletal variables, the standard error of the estimate (SEE) for all 12 test individuals ranged from 0.3359 – 0.7496. For the skull variables, the SEE ranged from 0.1260 – 0.3197. For the limb variables, the SEE ranged from 0.1716 – 0.3964. For the vertebral variables, the SEE ranged from 0.1511 – 0.2851. These small SEE values and the large sample size substantiate the accuracy of these predictive models and the reliability of their respective confidence intervals (CI) and prediction intervals (PI) for the models. The results confirm that these linear regression models will be appropriate to predict the body mass of the Eocene whales in the second stage of this project.

Reinstatement of Dermacentor tricuspis (Schulze, 1933) n. comb., n. stat. (Acari: Ixodidae) as a valid species, synonymization of D. atrosignatus Neumann, 1906 and description of a new species from Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.

Re-examination of the holotype of Dermacentor atrosignatus Neumann, 1906 (Acari: Ixodidae) stored in the Natural History Museum (London, UK) revealed that this taxon is identical with D. auratus Supino, 1897 and should be treated as a junior synonym of the latter species. A correct name for the distinct species previously identified as D. atrosignatus Neumann, 1906 sensu Wassef & Hoogstraal, 1984 should be D. tricuspis (Schulze, 1933) n. comb., n. stat. Adults of D. tricuspis are redescribed here. Re-examination of extensive holdings of Oriental Dermacentor Koch, 1844 ticks stored in the United States National Tick Collection revealed that a morphologically distinct new species of this genus, namely D. falsosteini D. Apanaskevich, M. Apanaskevich & Nooma n. sp. should be recognized. Adults of D. tricuspis and D. falsosteini n. sp. can be distinguished from other species of Oriental Dermacentor and each other by the colour pattern of the conscutum and scutum, the pattern of punctations on the pseudoscutum and scutum, the shape of female genital structures and spurs on coxa I. Dermacentor tricuspis is recorded from Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand where the adults were mostly collected from various species of wild pigs (Artiodactyla: Suidae) and vegetation; few adults were available from other mammals (Artiodactyla: Bovidae; Carnivora: Canidae, Felidae, Ursidae; Pholidota: Manidae), as well as humans and reptiles (Squamata: Elapidae, Varanidae). One male was reared from a nymph collected on a rodent (Rodentia: Muridae). Dermacentor falsosteini n. sp. is found in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand where the adults were collected from bearded pig, Sus barbatus Müller, wild boar, S. scrofa Linnaeus, unidentified wild pig, Sus sp. (Artiodactyla: Suidae), Malayan tapir, Tapirus indicus Desmarest (Perissodactyla: Tapiridae), human and vegetation.

Individual Differences in the Vocal Communication of Malayan Tapirs (Tapirus indicus) Considering Familiarity and Relatedness.

Simple SummaryStudies in animal communication have shown that many species have individual distinct calls. These individual distinct vocalizations can play an important role in animal communication because they can carry important information about the age, sex, personality, or social role of the signaler. Although we have good knowledge regarding the importance of individual vocalization in social living mammals, it is less clear to what extent solitary living mammals possess individual distinct vocalizations. Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) are solitary living forest dwellers that inhabit tropical habitats. We recorded the vocalizations of 14 adult Malayan tapirs (six females and eight males) living in seven European zoos to answer the question of whether Malayan tapirs possess individually distinct vocalizations. Apart from sex-related differences, we found significant differences in the harmonic calls of all subjects. Surprisingly, kinship had no influence on call similarity, whereas familiar animals exhibited significant higher similarity in their harmonic calls compared to unfamiliar or related subjects. The results support the view that solitary animals could have individual distinct calls, like highly social animals. These new insights in the acoustic communication of tapirs provide a solid base to use bioacoustics as conservation tools to protect this endangered species.Studies in animal communication have shown that many species have individual distinct calls. These individual distinct vocalizations can play an important role in animal communication because they can carry important information about the age, sex, personality, or social role of the signaler. Although we have good knowledge regarding the importance of individual vocalization in social living mammals, it is less clear to what extent solitary living mammals possess individual distinct vocalizations. We recorded and analyzed the vocalizations of 14 captive adult Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) (six females and eight males) to answer this question. We investigated whether familiarity or relatedness had an influence on call similarity. In addition to sex-related differences, we found significant differences between all subjects, comparable to the individual differences found in highly social living species. Surprisingly, kinship appeared to have no influence on call similarity, whereas familiar subjects exhibited significantly higher similarity in their harmonic calls compared to unfamiliar or related subjects. The results support the view that solitary animals could have individual distinct calls, like highly social animals. Therefore, it is likely that non-social factors, like low visibility, could have an influence on call individuality. The increasing knowledge of their behavior will help to protect this endangered species.

Conservation status of large mammals in protected and logged forests of the greater Taman Negara Landscape, Peninsular Malaysia

Abstract. Clements GR, Rostro-García S, Kamler JF, Liang SH, Hashim AKBA. 2021. Conservation status of large mammals in protected and logged forests of the greater Taman Negara Landscape, Peninsular Malaysia. Biodiversitas 22: 272-277. Peninsular Malaysia contains a large community of IUCN Threatened mammal species, although recent records in some protected areas is unknown. The greater Taman Negara Landscape is one of the national priority areas for tiger conservation, but the recent occurrence of large mammals in the landscape has not been sufficiently updated. Here, we conducted systematic camera-trap surveys in protected and logged forests of the Taman Negara Landscape: Merapoh in Taman Negara National Park (TNM), and the Dungun Timber Complex (DTC), respectively. We found that the diversity of large mammals in TNM appeared to be the same between 2000 and 2016. The detection frequencies (DF) of several Threatened species, such as Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni), dhole (Cuon alpinus), and Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica), were similar between surveys, suggesting the relative abundance of these species likely remained stable during the past 16 years. However, the DF of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) were lower compared to 2000. In DTC, overall mammalian diversity was relatively lower than in TNM, primarily due to the non-detection of two large ungulates: gaur (Bos gaurus) and sambar (Rusa unicolor). Nevertheless, we recorded several other Threatened species of mammals, suggesting there is potential for this forest reserve to preserve some of Peninsular Malaysia’s most Threatened mammal species. Our results suggest that the Taman Negara Landscape is still an important global site for the conservation of several Threatened species, and we recommend an increase in wildlife law enforcement efforts to ensure the survival of its large and diverse mammalian community.

Mammal Diversity at Artificial Saltlicks in Malaysia: A Targeted Use

Natural mineral licks are used by many species throughout the world but information relating to the use of artificial saltlicks for wildlife conservation and management is scant. The Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Peninsular Malaysia has established more than 30 artificial saltlicks intended to enrich the habitat with additional mineral resources for wildlife. We used automated camera traps to assess mammal diversity and visitation rates at 14 artificial saltlicks across three wildlife reserves, and compared these metrics to those from nearby (300m) forest sites. Cameras were operational for an average of 65.3 trap nights (TN), providing 846 TN at artificial saltlicks and 916 TN in forest areas. At artificial saltlicks we recorded 159.7 independent mammal encounters (100TN-1), significantly higher (p<0.0001) than from forest sites at 31.1 100TN-1. Twenty-three species were recorded at artificial saltlicks while 19 species were detected from forest sites. Of the seven most frequent species to visit the artificial saltlicks, only wild pig (p=0.012), Malayan tapir (p=0.033), red muntjac (p=0.008) and Malayan porcupine (p=0.007) showed significantly higher encounter rates over forest sites, indicating a specific preference and targeted use of artificial saltlicks for these species. Artificial saltlick sites successfully attracted a wide range of species, possibly because they provided valuable resources that would otherwise be absent in the study area. Such areas may be beneficial in diversifying and enriching habitats, particularly where natural mineral licks have been lost or habitats necessitate restoration or rehabilitation.

A preliminary study of mirror-induced self-directed behaviour on wildlife at the Royal Belum Rainforest Malaysia

Mirror-induced behaviour has been described as a cognitive ability of an animal to self-direct their image in front of the mirror. Most animals when exposed to a mirror responded with a social interactive behaviour such as aggressiveness, exploratory and repetitive behaviour. The objective of this study is to determine the mirror-induced self-directed behaviour on wildlife at the Royal Belum Rainforest, Malaysia. Wildlife species at the Royal Belum Rainforest were identified using a camera traps from pre-determined natural saltlick locations. Acrylic mirrors with steel frame were placed facing the two saltlicks (Sira Batu and Sira Tanah) and the camera traps with motion-detecting infrared sensor were placed at strategically hidden spot. The behavioural data of the animal response to the mirror were analysed using an ethogram procedure. Results showed that barking deer was the species showing the highest interaction in front of the mirror. Elephants displayed self-directed response through inspecting behaviour via usage of their trunk and legs while interacting to the mirror. Interestingly, the Malayan tapir showed startled behaviour during their interaction with the mirror. However, the absence of interactive behaviour of the Malayan tiger signalled a likelihood of a decreased social response behaviour. These results suggested that the ability to self-directed in front of the mirror is most likely related to the new approach to study the neural mechanism and its level of stimulus response in wildlife. In conclusion, research on mirror-induced self-directed behaviour in wildlife will have profound implications in understanding the cognitive ability of wildlife as an effort to enhance the management strategies and conservation.

Mammalian Diversity of Gunung Ledang, Johor, Peninsular Malaysia

Mammals play a crucial role for the biotic processes of the rainforest ecosystem. Studying their behaviour and biology are vital to fully understand the jigsaw of rainforest dynamics. This study was made to update the diversity checklist of mammals in Gunung Ledang. This study was done in Taman Negara Johor; Gunung Ledang (2.37°N, 102.60°E) where it is known to be the highest mountain (1,276 m asl.) in the southern Malay Peninsula. This study was conducted from July 2018 to April 2019. In total, 22 cameras were installed along three nature trails which are Sagill trail, Telekom Trail, and Resort Trail. Overall, a total of 31 species of terrestrial mammals from small- to large-sized were recorded in our camera trapping study of 3434 camera-days.Mammals such as the Leopard (Panthera pardus), Sumatran Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis), and Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus) were caught in the videos of camera trap. This showed that the diversity of mammals in Gunung Ledang is quite high. Tthis paper already gave valuable insights in a rainforest guild that is highly diverse and of outstanding value to the forest ecosystem. Management plans and strategy to conserve the mammals in Gunung Ledang can be done as accordingly afterwards.

Assessing habitat requirements of Asian tapir in forestry landscapes: Implications for conservation

The iconic large-bodied Asian tapir (Tapirus indicus) is endemic to Southeast Asia and is currently listed as endangered. To date, little is known about how tapir respond to habitat fragmentation in forestry landscapes. This study aimed to assess tapir occurrence in eight forestry reserves, outside the main protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia, using non-intrusive camera trapping methods. These reserves include logged or unlogged, contiguous or fragmented, peat swamp forest and lowland dipterocarp forest. Out of 345 camera-trapping locations, over six years, we detected tapir at 39 locations, represented by 960 images. An assessment of vegetation structure and landscape variables was conducted to identify the key factors associated with their tapir presence. We found that tapir occurrence significantly increased with the number of trees with a DBH of 5–45 cm, number of saplings, percentage of canopy cover, trees with a DBH of more than 45 cm and distance from the nearest road. While, tapir detection decreased with the number of dead fallen trees and number of palms. Our data highlights the importance of conserving these remaining fragmented forest reserves, particularly peat swamp forests and ways in which suitable habitat conditions may be created to support tapir populations. We conclude by discussing intervention approaches such as relocation, reintroduction and restocking and restoration to improve the structural attributes of vegetation utilised by tapirs.

Morphological Grouping and Body Mass Prediction Models

Every facet of an organism’s function is affected by its body size, such as heart rate, metabolism, organ size and function, feeding ecology, and locomotion. Using body size to assess the function and size of organs in extant mammals is relatively easy. However, estimating the body size and organ function of transitional fossil species, such as the Eocene whales, is difficult. The Eocene whales are diverse in body size, structure, and habitat, therefore a single allometric model will not provide the most accurate body size estimation for each fossil whale family and therefore less accurate organ function assessment. The goal of my research is to predict the body size of the Eocene whales using morphological models of extant mammals as guides. The first stage is the morphological grouping and body mass prediction models using modern mammal skeletons.I measured the skull, vertebrae, and appendicular bones of multiple species of modern aquatic, semi‐aquatic, and terrestrial mammals. I calculated an average body mass representative of each species using recorded body weights. Using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), I determined morphological groupings for these mammals from the skeletal measurements. For each PCA analysis completed, I created a linear regression equation to predict body size from the skeletal variables used in each analysis and the calculated average body sizes. I tested these prediction models using the measurements from 12 representative skeletons that were not included in the data set used to create the model, specifically Odocoileus virginianus, Tragulus napu, Hippopotamus amphibus, Tapirus indicus, Sus scrofa, Canis lupus lycaon, Nyctereutes procyonid, Ehydra lutris, Gulo gulo, Neophoca cinerea, Lobodon carinophagus, and Ursus maritimus.From the PCA, I identified five morphological groups for the mammals selected: Aquatic, Semi‐aquatic, Semi‐terrestrial, Large Terrestrial and Small Terrestrial. For the prediction model using all skeletal variables, the standard error of the estimate (SEE) for all 12 test individuals ranged from 0.3359 – 0.7496. For the skull variables, the SEE ranged from 0.1260 – 0.3197. For the limb variables, the SEE ranged from 0.1716 – 0.3964. For the vertebral variables, the SEE ranged from 0.1511 – 0.2851. These small SEE values and the large sample size substantiate the accuracy of these predictive models and the reliability of their respective confidence intervals (CI) and prediction intervals (PI) for the models. The results confirm that these linear regression models will be appropriate to predict the body mass of the Eocene whales in the second stage of this project.Support or Funding InformationKent State University; East Tennessee State University; Sigma Xi

Human and Animals Conflicts: A case study of wildlife roadkill in Malaysia

Conflicts between humans and animals have been a challenge due to rapid urbanization. Most of the forest is cleared to build roads and highway. Thus, animals need to migrate or move for their survival. This paper aims to review wildlife roadkill data from PERHILITAN and arranged it under several groups of species. Here, quantitative analysis of the roadkill data is used to select one species as the primary subject (Malayan Tapir). It has been observed that Malayan Tapir has involved in 68 vehicle collisions with a total loss of RM6.8 million in 5 years. From these results, long-term mitigation measures have been addressed in this study.Keywords: human; road construction; wildlife roadkill; mitigationeISSN: 2398-4287 © 2020. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning &amp; Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v5i13.2093

Social and Reproductive Behavior of Captive Malayan Tapirs\u2019 (Tapirus indicus): Interactions with Maternal Experience and Environmental Conditions

Malayan tapirs are listed as endangered and are bred in captivity under governmental management. The success of captive breeding programs varies and the underlying causes are unclear. Here, we investigate how tapir reproduction is affected by previous breeding experience, enclosure type/size and visitor numbers so that appropriate steps can be taken to achieve self-sustaining captive populations. Data on social and reproductive behaviors were collected from six tapirs (three males, three females), from different breeding centers in Peninsular Malaysia for 18 weeks. Results revealed that social and reproductive behavior of both sexes was significantly influenced by social and environmental conditions. Larger enclosure size tended to increase social and reproductive behaviors, whereas high number of visitors reduced initial interaction between males and females. No specific breeding month was confirmed; however, reproductive behaviors were highest in April. Overall, this study contributes to a better understanding of the relationships between social and reproductive behaviors, and captive environments on Malayan tapirs. In future, frequency of sexual interactions should be monitored regularly to identify animals exhibiting below-average frequency and who might, therefore, be prone to reproductive difficulties.

Molecular sexing and preliminary assessment of population sex ratio of the endangered Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) in Peninsular Malaysia

A molecular sexing method by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of a portion of the sex-determining region Y (SRY) and the zinc finger (ZF) gene, as well as six equine Y-chromosome-specific microsatellite markers, were tested in the Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus). While the microsatellite markers did not yield any male-specific amplicons for sex-typing, the SRY/ZF marker system produced reliable molecular sexing results by accurately sex-typing 31 reference Malayan tapirs, using whole blood, dried blood spot (DBS), or tissue samples as materials for DNA extraction. The marker system was also tested on 16 faecal samples, and the results were in general consistent with the pre-determined sexes of the animals, despite some amplification failures. A preliminary estimation of wild Malayan tapir population sex ratio was estimated from the Wildlife Genomic Resource Bank (WGRB) database of the Malaysian Department of Wildlife and National Parks (PERHILITAN), zoos, and the Sungai Dusun Wildlife Conservation Centre (WCC), as well as from the results of molecular sexing 12 samples of unknown sex. The overall sex ratio favoured females, but the deviation from parity was statistically not significant when tested using the binomial test (p > 0.05), which may be due to reduced statistical power caused by small sample sizes.