Tap Water System Research Articles

Research on the Carbon Footprint Impact of Using Individual Plastic Bottles in Orienteering Events in China

Global warming is nowadays seriously affecting people’s production and life and causing great harm to the natural environment. The main cause of global warming is the greenhouse effect, which is due to the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. As a measure of an activity’s contribution to global warming, the calculation of carbon footprint is essential. In China orienteering events, single-use bottled water is widely used as post-race supplies, which generates a large amount of carbon emissions and carbon footprint. However, although bottled water is convenient, this consumption is still unnecessary, since there are other efficient alternatives. In this paper, the author discusses the possibility of changing the water supply strategy and method for orienteering events in China. Comparing the basic information and carbon footprint results produced by bottled water, barrel water and tap water, the author concludes that plastic materials required for barrel water are much less than bottled water since bottles own larger surface area than barrels when containing same amount of water. The author also summarizes that single-use bottled water system produces much more carbon footprints than municipal tap water system does due to the former one’s more complex and energy consuming process. In conclusion, the author considers that replacing single-use bottled water with barrel water and recycled cups or tap water is promising and has great benefits for the environment.

Magnetic recyclable g-C3N4/CuFe2O4/MnO2 activated peroxymonosulfate process via dual Z-scheme heterojunction for photodegradation of ciprofloxacin

Composite heterojunctions effectively enhance the separation efficiency of photoelectrons and holes, thereby activating the peroxymonosulfate (PMS) process to degrade recalcitrant pollutants. Consequently, a g-C3N4/CuFe2O4/MnO2 (CN/CFO/MN) composite with a dual Z-scheme heterojunction was developed for the first time and coupled with PMS for the degradation of ciprofloxacin. CN/CFO/MN exhibited strong binding ability to ciprofloxacin with an adsorption capacity of 38mg/g, reaching adsorption equilibrium within 60min with high efficiency, which is crucial for effective degradation. Additionally, isolated CN/CFO/MN and bare PMS (0.3g/L) demonstrated limited degradation capabilities with ciprofloxacin removal rate of 51% and 41% under illumination, respectively. Notably, the elimination efficiency of ciprofloxacin was enhanced to nearly 100% by integrating CN/CFO/MN photodegradation with PMS activation. Furthermore, compared to pure CN, CFO, MN, and the binary CN/CFO, CN/CFO/MN provided superior photocatalytic degradation, improving the removal efficiency from 45% to 63%. The dual Z-scheme heterojunction in CN/CFO/MN furnishes ample photoelectrons to activate the PMS process for the generation of free radicals. Active species exploration experiments suggest that the CN/CFO/MN-PMS-light method primarily degrades ciprofloxacin by catalyzing the generation of holes, superoxide, hydroxyl and sulfate radicals. The CN/CFO/MN-PMS-light method achieved complete removal of 0.02–0.1g/L ciprofloxacin within 5min in tap, pond and river water systems. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis-determined the degradation pathways of ciprofloxacin to involve the piperazine ring, defluorination reaction, and oxidation reaction of quinolone. Assessment via toxicity estimation software indicated that the toxicity of the degradation products was significantly reduced reaching harmless level. This work demonstrates that the CN/CFO/MN-PMS-light method with a dual Z-scheme heterojunction holds considerable potential for environmental purification.

Bottom-up synthesis of a sulfhydryl-modified heteroporous covalent organic framework for ultrafast removal of trace Hg(Ⅱ) from water

The development of functionalized covalent organic frameworks (COFs) is crucial in expanding their potential for removing toxic heavy metals from drinking water. Here, a new sulfhydryl-modified heteroporous COF (COFDBD-BTA) was prepared using a “bottom-up” approach in which a direct amine-aldehyde dehydration condensation between 2,5-diamino-1,4-benzenedithiol dihydrochloride (DBD) and [1,1′-biphenyl]-3,3′,5,5′-tetracarbaldehyde (BTA) was occurred. The COFDBD-BTA featured a hexagonal kagome (kgm) structure and a sheet-like morphology. Notably, COFDBD-BTA contained densely S atoms that provided high-density Hg(II) adsorption sites for efficient and selective trace Hg(II) removal. COFDBD-BTA exhibited excellent performance in rapidly removing trace Hg(II) from 30 μg L−1 to 0.71 μg L−1 within 10 s, below the World Health Organization's allowable limit of 1 μg L−1. Additionally, COFDBD-BTA exhibited a high Hg (Ⅱ) removal level from water, achieving adsorption capacity of 687.38 mg g−1. Furthermore, the adsorbent exhibited a wide range of applicability for low concentration (6–500 μg L−1) Hg (Ⅱ), a simple and feasible regeneration method, and strong Hg(II) removal ability in real tap water systems. The excellent adsorption efficiency, outstanding recyclability, and one-step room temperature synthesis make S-rich COFDBD-BTA a promising candidate for eliminating Hg (Ⅱ) from drinking water.

Global prevalence of microplastics in tap water systems: Abundance, characteristics, drivers and knowledge gaps

Tap water is a main route for human direct exposure to microplastics (MPs). This study recompiled baseline data from 34 countries to assess the current status and drivers of MP contamination in global tap water systems (TWS). It was shown that MPs were detected in 87 % of 1148 samples, suggesting the widespread occurrence of MPs in TWS. The detected concentrations of MPs spanned seven orders of magnitude and followed the linearized log-normal distribution (MSE = 0.035, R2 = 0.965), with cumulative concentrations at 5th, 50th and 95th percentiles of 0.028, 4.491 and 728.105 items/L, respectively. The morphological characteristics were further investigated, indicating that particles smaller than 50 μm dominated in global TWS, with fragment, polyester and transparent as the most common shape, composition and color of MPs, respectively. Subsequently, the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) algorithm was implemented to quantify the importance of variables affecting the MP abundance in global TWS, showing that the lower particle size limit was the most important variables. Subgroup analysis revealed that the concentration of MPs counted at the size limit of 1 μm was >20 times higher than that above 1 μm. Ultimately, current knowledge gaps and future research needs were elucidated.

Monodispersed AuNPs synthesized in a bio-based route for ultra selective colorimetric determination of Ni(II) ions

Nanoparticle (NP) systems with controllable and adjustable response sensor characteristics are promising for the colorimetric sensing of heavy metal ions in aqueous systems. In this article, uniform gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with a mean diameter of 31.16 ± 6.67 nm have been achieved with the inexpensive and easily affordable differential centrifugation technique. Thereafter, they are deployed for Ni(II) ions colorimetric determination. Plant phytochemicals (mostly GC, EGC, CG and ECG polyphenols) that exist as natural reducing agents in mature green tea leaves were explored for the synthesized AuNPs. Subsequently, various spectroscopic and imaging methods such as UV–Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometer (XRD), field emission transmission electron microscopy (FETEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) have been applied for a greater insight into the morphological and structural characteristics of the green method synthesized AuNPs. The colorimetric sensing ability of the AuNPs for Ni(II) ionic identification in aqueous tap water system (0.001 to 1 mg/L) has been quantified in terms of the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) values of 0.001 and 0.005 mg/L respectively. Furthermore, the metal-ligand interaction between AuNPs and Ni(II) ions resulted in a noticeable shift in color, and from the pink (λmax= 528 nm) to purple hue (λmax= 556 nm). The FETEM analysis assured clustering tendencies of AuNPs upon exposure to Ni(II) ions. The XPS analysis conveyed the coordination of positively charged Ni(II) ions with the surface-bound negative charged functional groups (–OH, C = O) of the AuNPs. These findings confirmed the practical relevance of the AuNPs for application as a potential colorimetric sensory system.

Perceptions on Drinking Water and Wastewater in a Local Area in Western Romania

The present study focuses on current knowledge of the local tap water and sewage systems among the citizens of three western Romanian localities. Only one of the considered localities in this study, namely, Pecica, partially benefits from access to a centralized tap water and sewerage system. The interest in this subject was caused by a procedure initiated by the local authorities to develop and improve the aforementioned infrastructure. The investigation methodology consisted of an online survey. The generated feedback was optimal for determining the general level of residents’ awareness of water and wastewater quality and the means for informing decisions of community interest. Nearly 75% of the interviewed persons declared that they had not been informed about future regional investments. The results indicated the necessity of raising the residents’ awareness about water quality and its importance for health, daily activities, and the environment. Only a few of the interviewees could provide concrete and accurate values for water quality parameters.

A case study of comparative techno-economic and life cycle assessment of tap water versus household reverse osmosis-based drinking water systems in a North Indian city

Abstract Household reverse osmosis (RO)-based water purifiers have gained popularity in India due to concerns about the quality of tap water. However, the widespread adoption of these systems has significant impacts on water pricing and the environment. The objective of this study was to assess the techno-economic performance and life cycle assessment (LCA) of household RO-based water purifiers in Srinagar city of North India. Our results demonstrate that household ROs reduce the concentration of important dietary minerals such as fluoride and magnesium in drinking water by 50%. In addition, the average total water cost from a household RO is three to four times more than what is being paid for tap water. Two different scenarios were compared in LCA. The first scenario was safe drinking water from a conventional drinking water treatment plant (scenario 1), while the second scenario was water from a household RO system (scenario 2). The results showed that the environmental impacts of abiotic depletion, acidification of water bodies, eutrophication, global warming and ozone depletion in scenario 2 were higher than in scenario 1. The findings infer that water utilities should encourage citizens to rely on conventional tap water as a cheaper and environmentally friendly option compared to household ROs.

Gamma radiation induced synthesis of double network hydrophilic cryogels at low pH loaded with AuNPs for fast and efficient degradation of Congo red

γ−radiation is a clean, fast and efficient synthetic route for polymeric materials. it is very powerful tool to generate free radicals during polymerization without any need of initiator and accelerator in both hydrophilic and hydrophobic media. Here in this work, for the first time, we fabricated acrylamide-methyl-propane sulfonic acid based-single and double network hydrophilic cryogels via γ−radiation at low pH. pH highly effects the synthesis of acrylamide-methyl-propane sulfonic acid based cryogels using redox initiation method. Along with pH, the effect of radiation time and radiation dose rate on cryo-polymerization was also studied. Gold hybrid cryogels (single and double network) were fabricated via self-reduction method at ambient conditions. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was implemented for chemical structure analysis of the synthesized material. The surface morphology of single and double network cryogels was observed via scanning electron microscopy. For the hybrid cryogels materials analysis x-ray diffraction, thermal gravimetric analysis, energy dispersive x-ray analysis, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy and was used to confirm the presence of nanoparticles in the polymer network. The fabricated hybrid cryogels (0.15 g) were used for the degradation of Congo red (50 mL) as model dye in the presence of NaBH4 (0.02 g) with efficient and fast degradation activity. The apparent rate constant value (Kapp) for single and double network hybrid cryogels was 0.3652 min−1 and 0.2268 min−1, respectively. The activation energy, enthalpy and entropy was calculated (34.44 kJ.mol−1, –30.85 kJ.mol−1 and –146.30 J·mol−1k−1, respectively) using Arrhenius and Eyring equations for the fabricated catalyst. The catalyst was tasted in the tap water system and its efficiency was satisfied in real world too. The fabricated double wall hybrid catalyst will have a significant importance in the environmental field.

Ultrasensitive colorimetric detection and determination of Hg(II) using bioinspired AgNPs synthesized from mature Camellia sinensis leaves

A quick and sensitive colorimetric method for the determination of mercury (Hg(II)) has been addressed in this article. Differential centrifugation based monodispersed silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized from mature green tea leaves with an average particle size of 14.708 ± 2.4 nm. The obtained AgNPs were analyzed with several spectroscopy and image analysis methods such as UV–Vis spectrophotometry, X-ray diffractometer (XRD), field emission transmission electron microscopy (FETEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The specific novelty refers to ambient temperature synthesis followed by centrifugal differentiation of highly sensitive, and selective monodispersed AgNPs. The efficacy of the developed sensor was optimum at a pH of 4 and was due to the interfering effect of OH– ions with the Hg(II). The successful Hg(II) detection in aqueous solutions in the 0.001 to 8 mg/L concentration range confirmed upon the applicability of the developed colorimetric sensor in real-time scenarios such as tap water system. Further, AgNPs were analyzed to interact with Hg(II) ions and form a Hg − Ag alloy (amalgam) that allowed a color alteration from brown to no color in the sample. UV − Vis spectrophotometry confirmed that the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) of the sensing system were 0.01 mg/L and 0.04 mg/L, respectively. These findings verily demonstrate the efficacy of the mentioned process to achieve functional AgNPs for the Hg(II) colorimetric sensing application.

Organophosphate flame retardants in Hangzhou tap water system: Occurrence, distribution, and exposure risk assessment

The usage of Organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) is gradually increased as the ban on brominated flame retardants (BFRs) worldwide. The frequent accessibility of OPFRs in aquatic environment poses potential risk to human. Previous studies have concerned on surface water, while studies on tap water are limited. In this research, we aim to evaluate the removal efficiency of the tap water treatment process and investigate the exposure risk of OPFRs in tap water. Herein, we collected 14 samples from water source, 10 samples from water treatment plants and 47 from tap to analyze the concentrations and removal efficiency of OPFRs in Hangzhou tap water supply system. The results showed the concentrations of ∑OPFRs ranged from 9.25 to 224.74 ng/L in all samples, with Tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) Phosphate (TCPP), Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), and Tributyl phosphate (TBP) being the predominant compounds. Levels of the OPFRs had a 10.0 % - 50.4 % declination when compared samples after treatment with that before. The maximum exposure doses of ∑OPFRs via tap water for both adults and children were much lower than the reference dose (RfD). As a result, the hazard index (HI) and the carcinogenic risk (CR) pinpointed a negligible non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk for the residents. Even so, given the pervasive usage of OPFRs, the residual levels and the potential risk of OPFRs in watershed should be continuously concerned.

Novel Hybrid Methods for Identifying the Main Transition Velocities in Various Bubble Columns

New, reliable, and innovative methods (the new hybrid index (NHI) and the information index (II)) for flow regime (FR) identification in bubble columns (BCs) operated with air–deionized water or nitrogen–tap water systems (at ambient conditions), as well as nitrogen–ethanol systems (at pressures of 0.1 and 0.3 MPa) systems have been successfully developed. New parameters extract useful hidden information from time series measurements by division of various signals (gas holdup, differential pressure (DP) and gauge pressure fluctuations) into different equal parts. Salient advantage of the new parameters is that their definitions are not based on any assumption.

Tap Water Quality Degradation in an Intermittent Water Supply Area

Decentralized tap water systems are an important drinking water source worldwide. A good quality, high-pressure continuous water supply (CWS) is always the target of any urban settlement. However, tap water in some areas are reported with deteriorated water quality even though treated well before supplying. Such deterioration of tap water quality is reported widely from areas with low water availability and in economically poor countries where water are supplied intermittently (IWS). This study focuses in identifying tap water quality in IWS and causes of water quality degradation using nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) as an indicator and stable isotopes of hydrogen (δD) as tracer. Nine water reservoirs and ninety municipal tap water (ten per reservoir) samples were collected during the wet (June–September) and dry (November–February) seasons in the Kathmandu Valley (KV), Nepal. Ten percent of the tap water samples exhibited higher NO3-N than those of their respective reservoirs during the wet season, while 16% exhibited higher concentrations during the dry season. Similarly, the isotopic signatures of tap water exhibited 3% and 23% higher concentrations than those of their respective reservoirs during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Coupling analysis between NO3-N and δD demonstrates close connection of groundwater and tap water. The results indicate groundwater intrusion as the primary component in controlling tap water quality variations within the same distribution networks during IWS. Meanwhile, the obtained results also indicate probable areas of intrusion in the KV as well as usefulness of δD as a tool in the assessment of tap water systems.

Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Hangzhou Tap Water System: Occurrence, Distribution, and Exposure Risk Assessment

Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Hangzhou Tap Water System: Occurrence, Distribution, and Exposure Risk Assessment

Evaluation of Multidrug-Resistant P. aeruginosa in Healthcare Facility Water Systems.

According to the WHO, P. aeruginosa is one of the antibiotic-resistant bacteria that represent the biggest threat to public health. The aim of the study was to establish the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant P. aeruginosa in the water systems of various healthcare facilities over the course of nine years. A total of 4500 tap water system samples were taken from seventeen healthcare facilities. The culture method was used to detect P. aeruginosa, and the isolates were then tested for antibiotic resistance using the standardised disc diffusion method. Eleven antibiotics from five different classes were tested. P. aeruginosa was found to have contaminated 2.07% (no. 93) of the water samples. The majority of positive samples came from the dental units (30.11%) and the ward kitchens (23.66%). Considering the total isolates, 56.99% (no. 3) were resistant to at least one of the antibiotics tested. A total of 71.43% of P. aeruginosa isolated from water emerging from dental unit handpieces was antibiotic-resistant, with 45% of it resistant to ≥3 classes of antibiotics. Out of the total isolates, 19.35% showed resistance to carbapenems. It would be advisable to systematically screen tap water for opportunistic micro-organisms such as P. aeruginosa, as many countries already do, including this in the Water Safety Plan.

Toward an IoT-Based Software-Defined Plumbing Network System With Fault Tolerance

in this paper we will see the application of computer science algorithms to the plumbing system. We propose a fault tolerant tap water system which is impossible without Internet of things and algorithms . We will show that the problem is a mutual exclusion group problem and we propose an adapted algorithm version from the literature as a solution . Coupling algorithms with the configurable plumbing network we believe that this will open new field of research on IoT we called it software defined plumbing Network where components that have been traditionally implemented in hardware (e.g. water mixers, spring faucets ,flow sensors, etc.) are instead implemented by means of software . This way we can solve other problem like instantaneous hot water,automatic cleaning of the water heater..etc since due to computer algorithms the systems can be easily smart, extensible and adaptive.

Assessing tap water awareness: The development of an empirically-based framework.

Despite the often emphasized importance of water awareness, and notwithstanding the fact that calls for increasing public awareness are becoming commonplace, most studies do not define the concept, let alone operationalise it into measurable units. This is, however, essential to measure and evaluate efforts related to water awareness such as public campaigns, customer communication and behavioural interventions. To address this gap, we conceptualise, operationalise and assess tap water awareness, hereby differentiating between cognitive awareness (head), affectional awareness (heart), and behavioural awareness (hands). In parallel, we also differentiate between tap water quality, quantity and system. By building on a variety of contemporary conceptual insights in literature and a series of expert interviews, an assessment framework is developed. A cohesive set of nine awareness components are identified and operationalised into a set of tangible questions which are put to the test in a large-scale online survey (n = 1003) in the Netherlands, applying both a traditional and modern segmentation approach based on four types of perspectives (‘quality & health concerned’, ‘aware & committed’, ‘egalitarian & solidary’, and ‘down to earth & confident’). Based on the analysis of the results of the first empirical application of our tap water awareness assessment framework, we conclude that—with a score 53.5 points out of 100—tap water awareness in the Netherlands shows ample room for improvement. Interestingly, most significant variations in awareness are generally not related to sociodemographic factors but rather apply to the four customer perspectives on drinking water that are based on people’s subjective views and preferences.

Development and Numerical Performance Analysis of a Micro Turbine in a Tap-Water Pipeline

The induction faucet has been widely used in public due to its advantages of convenience, sanitation, water, and electricity saving. To solve the problem of environmental pollution caused by dry batteries used in induction faucets, a suitable micro pipe mixed-flow turbine installed in a tap-water system with only 15 mm in diameter, that uses the pipeline water pressure to generate electricity for the induction faucet was designed and developed, based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and model tests. According to the specific speed, a preliminary design of each flow component of the turbine was first produced. Then, using the multi-objective orthogonal optimization method, the optimum test schemes were determined, and the influence of various test factors on the turbine’s hydraulic performance was revealed. Under the design flow rate, the turbine’s power output and efficiency were 6.40 W and 87.13%, respectively, which were 34.45% and 4.99% higher than those of the preliminary scheme. Both the power output and efficiency of the optimized turbine met the design requirements. Numerical and model test results showed good agreement, where the deviation in turbine power output predictions was below 5% under large flow condition. Model test results also showed that the turbine can be started as long as the inlet flow is greater than 0.14 kg/s. Overall, the micro-pipe turbine designed in this paper exploits the (mostly wasted) water kinetic energy in induction faucets for power production, contributing to environmental pollution reduction and realizing energy conservation.

Evaluation of Yangon city tap water quality and the efficacy of household treatment

Abstract Yangon was one of the first cities in Asia to establish a tap water system. However, the city's water supply infrastructure now lags far behind those of other regions as a consequence of political instability over the last six decades. The installation of disinfection facilities in the tap water system and the enactment of the Myanmar National Drinking Water Quality Standard (MNDWQS) were accomplished only recently during the short period of democratic government. Due to the lack of reliable published information, the suitability of the tap water for drinking remains unclear to city residents. The quality of tap water and bottled water in the central business district was examined to assess compliance with the MNDWQS. The results showed that 95% of tap water delivered to homes was contaminated with Escherichia coli or coliform bacteria. Only 14% of bottled water was free of E. coli and coliform contamination. The efficacy of household treatment devices was tested, and ceramic purifiers (CPs) and reverse osmosis (RO) devices were found to be highly (>99%) effective for E. coli elimination. RO devices performed better in terms of dissolved organic carbon reduction at 60% compared with 43% reduction with CPs.

Perceptions of water quality, and current and future water consumption of residents in the central business district of Yangon city Myanmar

Abstract Public water supply services in Yangon started in 1842, however the practice of drinking tap water has been uncommon until this moment. Currently, Yangon city development committee is upgrading the tap water system in accordance with the greater Yangon water supply improvement project. It is important to know the perceptual driving factors affecting the decision to drink in order to effectively improve the public acceptance of tap water. In this study, household water management practices and their influencing factors for Yangon city residents are revealed through questionnaires. Residence time in Yangon city is significantly associated with water consumption behaviour. Decisions for drinking come from organoleptic perception rather than important safety considerations. The future consumption of tap water is influenced by income and perception of overall quality. Preferred billing method is associated with education, family size, income and willingness to spend more for better quality water.

Bathymetric Survey for Enhancing the Volumetric Capacity of Tagwai Dam in Nigeria via Leapfrogging Approach

From a global perspective, dams are constructed to trap water flowing from a higher concentration to a lower concentration into a basin for several purposes to aid humanity. The continuous monitoring of dams is prudent for measuring the rate of sedimentation and siltation, and to ensure that it functions to its full capacity. The Tagwai dam is used for irrigation and domestic activities. It was observed that there is a shortage in its storage capacity and supplies due to sedimentation, and coupled with this is the fact that the majority of the communities are not connected to the tap water system; if not, the problem would have been evidently pronounced. However, to determine the present volume of water and provide possible ways of increasing the reservoir’s storage capacity, the leapfrogging approach was used to improve the basin. The data were collected using a single beam echosounder and Hi-Target V30 differential global positioning system (DGPS). The sounder was used to acquire bathymetric data, while the DGPS was used to delineate the shoreline. The data were interpolated using the ordinary Kriging technique. After that, the leapfrogging method was grouped into four scenarios: Scenario A, B, C, and D. In each stage, the volume was computed using Simpson’s 3/8 integrated model. Scenario A is the present stage of the reservoir. Consequently, the results show that, while scenario B and C presented an appreciable increase in volume at the instant, scenario D illustrated a tremendous improvement in the storage capacity, and it is a win-win situation. The decision on which leapfrogging approach to employ depends on the government’s willingness to enhance the reservoir’s capacity and the resources available, such as human and financial capital to execute the project.