Tanker Operations Research Articles

The Grounding of Exxon Valdez: An Examination of the Human and Organizational Factors

Just after midnight on March 24, 1989 the tankship Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef inPrince William Sound, Alaska. The consequences of the accident were the loss of 258 000 barrels of crude oil resulting in substantial environmental and economic loss. The vessel possessed the best technologies available to the tanker industry and was the pride of the Exxon fleet. However, the complexity and the potential catastrophic consequences of using these new technologies is leading to the examination of a more critical element: the human factor. It has been determined that approximately 65% of catastrophic marine-related accidents have been the result of compounded human and organizational errors (HOE) during operations. Consequently, tanker operators and regulatory agencies have begun to realize the importance of examining the critical human factor element in tankship operations. Probabilistic risk analysis (PRA) procedures using influence diagramming are currently being developed to examine the effects of HOE in marine-related accidents. This paper examines (1) the human and organizational elements which led to the grounding of ExxonValdez, (2) structuring of the accident cause-effect relationships into an analytical framework, (3)methods for probabilistic risk analysis (PRA) of HOE in the accident, (4) changes in operational and regulatory policy in post-Exxon Valdez era, and (5) methods for determining HOE management alternatives for future tanker operations.

Regime design matters: intentional oil pollution and treaty compliance

Whether a treaty elicits compliance from governments or nonstate actors depends upon identifiable characteristics of the regime's compliance systems. Within the international regime controlling intentional oil pollution, a provision requiring tanker owners to install specified equipment produced dramatically higher levels of compliance than a provision requiring tanker operators to limit their discharges. Since both provisions entailed strong economic incentives for violation and regulated the same countries over the same time period, the variance in compliance clearly can be attributed to different features of the two subregimes. The equipment requirements' success stemmed from establishing an integrated compliance system that increased transparency, provided for potent and credible sanctions, reduced implementation costs to governments by building on existing infrastructures, and prevented violations rather than merely deterring them.

Development of non-destructive testing methods for proving and re- testing low pressure, fibre reinforced plastic highway tankers

The use of fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) in the transportation of corrosive and waste liquids is appealing to an increasing number of highway tanker operators. Because of the serious consequences of a failure of this type of equipment, appropriate methods of design as well as reliable quality control techniques are required. A method of acoustic emission (AE) testing FRP/BWC tankers was developed by observing AE activity trends upon repeated pressurization of the tankers. Twenty-five tanker tests were conducted; 8 of these were run to bursting pressure. A simple method of measuring AE activity trend was developed, and unambiguous acceptance/rejection criteria was proposed.

The Citizens' Advisory Council as a means of mitigating environmental impacts of terminal and tanker operations

The Citizens' Advisory Council as a means of mitigating environmental impacts of terminal and tanker operations

EXPERIMENT IN DEMOCRACY: THE CITIZEN OVERSIGHT COUNCIL AS A MEANS OF MITIGATING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TERMINAL AND TANKER OPERATIONS

ABSTRACT In 1987, a handful of people from the small fishing community of Cordova, Alaska, coalesced around concern over the risks of oil-related pollution and oil spills in Prince William Sound posed by the trans-Alaska pipeline terminal and tanker operations in neighboring Valdez. The Cordova group sent an emissary to Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, which operates the Valdez Marine Terminal on behalf of its seven oil company owners. The emissary asked Alyeska to consider forming a citizen group to advise Alyeska on environmental issues of local or regional concern. Alyeska listened but rejected the idea. In March 1989, the Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef. Alyeska's owners, acting principally at the behest of majority owner, British Petroleum, soon effected sweeping change in Alyeska's management. The change in management, with Jim Hermiller as president, produced a change in Alyeska's attitude toward the citizen advisory group proposal, and not long afterward Alyeska formed the Alyeska Citizen Advisory Committee. Over the next year that group evolved into what is now called the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council, or RCAC. The Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council is a national experiment in providing citizens a voice in corporate decisions that affect them and their communities. This paper recounts the story of RCAC's formation and evolution, the group's mission under both federal law and its contract with Alyeska, and the hallmarks of its achievements and challenges to date.

Tar loads on Omani beaches

Owing to Oman's geographic position and long coastal line, the coastal areas of Oman are particularly vulnerable to oil pollution from normal tanker operations, illegal discharges, and accidental spills as well as local sources of oil input. UNEP carried out a survey on the coasts of Oman to determine the major sources of oil pollution and concluded that the major shoreline pollution problems in Oman arose from operational discharges of oil from passing vessels traffic. The oil, because of the high sea and air temperatures in the area, was subjected to relatively high rates of evaporation and photo-oxidation and tended to arrive at the coast as heavy petroleum particulate residues (tar balls). The aim of the present study was to measure the loads of tar balls in Omani coastal areas and to identify the source of oil pollutants on beaches.

The Oil Pollution act of 1990: Key Provisions and Implications

ABSTRACT The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 establishes a system of oil spill liability, compensation and financial responsibility at levels not contemplated prior to the Exxon Valdez incident. Furthermore, it does so while preserving states’ prerogatives and rejects the international solution embodied in the 1984 Protocols to the 1969 Civil Liability and 1971 Fund Conventions. The act requires new contingency planning by both industry and government and sets new construction, manning, and licensing requirements. It increases penalties, broadens enforcement responsibilities of the federal government, and enhances states’ participation in the national response program. It also establishes a billion dollar federal trust fund to supplement the liability of responsible parties. The act is likely to result in safer tanker operations and to reduce the threat of oil spills in U.S. waters. These environmental improvements will be paid for by U.S. oil consumers. Other implications include the following:Reassessment of involvement in U.S. oil transportation by both independents and oil majorsEnhanced preparedness by responsible partiesA gradual rise in freight ratesCorporate restructuring to shield liabilityFewer small oil companies and independent carriers in U.S. tradesPotential disruptions linked to new certificates of financial responsibilityPotential shortages of Alaskan trade tonnageHeightened presence of state governments in oil spill incidents, oil spill legislation, and enforcement

Open registry tanker operations: a comparative cost analysis

Findings show that open registry costs are lower than those of traditional registry tankers at all levels except that of the product tanker level and that the manning cost element is the principal contributor to the operating cost differential between the open registry tanker and traditional registry tankers.

The effects of sediment transport on contaminant dispersal: An example from Milford Haven

Milford Haven is an estuary that has been subjected to industrial pollution from tanker operations and refinery and power station effluents since about 1962. Consequently build-up of various anthropogenic heavy metals and hydrocarbons has been observed in the bottom sediments. This paper describes 1. a new technique whereby the patterns of net sediment transport are determined from the relative changes of grain-size distributions in 125 grab samples, and 2. how net sediment transport correlates with the quantity of contaminants contained in the bottom sediments. The analysis demonstrates that sediment movement in the flood direction dominates the central channel and the northern half of the estuary. Transport in the ebb direction is confined to the southern coastal zone. A comparison of the transport paths with contaminant concentrations shows clearly that the flood-dominant movement leads to concentration of heavy metals and hydrocarbons. As a result, an area of fine-grained deposition near the head of the estuary receives exceptionally high concentrations of contaminants. The ebbdominant transport, on the other hand, causes dilution in the amount of pollutants contained in the sediments. The derived transport paths agree well with known current patterns, and this technique is shown to be a rapid and inexpensive method for 1. environmental impact assessment, 2. establishing effective monitoring programmes, 3. predicting areas vulnerable to contamination, and 4. rational contingency planning.

A translog cost model of the bulk shipping industry

Data weaknesses coupled with the lack of a rigorous modelling framework have limited detailed, econometric analysis of international shipping costs. By combining cross‐sectional survey data with simulated variables this article examines the cost functions associated with bulk carrier and tanker operations. It adopts a flexible form of economic cost function to circumvent the restrictive nature of the few previous studies which have been conducted. The paper looks at a number of key relationships including factor substitutability in shipping supply, the existence and magnitude of scale economies and the impact of regulation on shipping costs. This is done both for bulk carriers and tankers. It provides statistical evidence relating to both management practices in the shipping industry and the ways in which these may be affected by the external environment. This work is based on a paper published in the Proceedings of the Fourth World Conference on Transport Research (Vancouver: Centre for Transportation St...

OIL POLLUTION CONTROL AND SPILL RESPONSE CAPABILITY IN THE ROPME SEA AREA

ABSTRACT The ROPME sea area as defined in this paper is the scene of some of the world's most intensive offshore oil exploration and production and the associated crude oil refining and tanker terminaling for oil exportation. The potential for oil pollution in the area is high, with its confined nature making it especially vulnerable to the effects of oil pollution. Awareness of this problem is well developed in the region in both government and industry, and good progress has been made in recent years toward preparing for the big oil spill which has so far not materialized, but which most experts consider inevitable at some time. Two distinct groups share the concern for oil pollution. The oil industry has well over 40 companies active in the area in some way. Many of these have a 15 year history of cooperation in oil spill response and continue to play a full role in protecting the environment from the adverse effects of oil pollution. More recently, nations bordering the area have taken an active interest in the problem and have demonstrated an impressive record of commitment and action over the past five or six years. While government and industry have maintained their separate identities, a good working relationship exists between them, and there is good information exchange and practical cooperation between the two groups, most especially at the national level. Future years should see this trend develop even further. A very impressive arsenal of oil pollution response equipment has been built up in the sea area since two major oil spill incidents in 1980. What is especially noticeable now is the proportion of this equipment that is owned and operated directly by the government agencies. This stands in marked contrast to the situation in 1980. In addition to the equipment resources available, the pool of personnel trained in oil spill response technology and methods is rapidly expanding as a result of seminars, workshops, and training courses that are being organized on a regular basis. The development of national and regional legislation to control the main sources of man-made pollution, for example, from tanker operations and offshore exploration and production, is in a very active stage and the oil industry is expected to have clear operational guidelines within the next few years.

Distribution, sources and fates of floating oil residues in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico

Pelagic tar was monitored over a two-year period in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico. A total of 416 surface and subsurface samples were collected during monthly cruises. Concentrations of pelagic tar found in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico were substantially higher than values reported for other areas around the world. Tar is primarily associated with the Gulf Loop Current, whereas continental shelf areas are relatively uncontaminated. Grounding of significant amounts of tar occurs primarily along the south-east coast of Florida, between Key West and Fort Pierce. Approximately 10–50% of the tar in the eastern Gulf is transported in from the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Straits. The remainder originates within the Gulf. Approximately half of the pelagic tar samples collected during the study appeared to have originated from tanker operations.

When jurisdictional interests collide: International, domestic, and state efforts to prevent vessel source oil pollution

Abstract The perils of the sea, together with the human capacity for error, ensure that oil pollution will continue to occur as long as tankers operate, in spite of all precautions. Since the 1967 Torrey Canyon disaster, government authorities in the United States, at national and state levels and in international forums, have conducted negotiations and instituted laws and regulations aimed at achieving safer and less‐polluting tanker operations. The power and limits of each level of government are gradually being defined by judicial decision, Congressional action, and evolving international law. The issue also raises important constitutional questions in the areas of federal preemption and interstate commerce. Our national interest requires that tanker standards, while protecting the marine environment, should not be inflationary, should not substantially restrict the transport of oil to the United States, or establish a precedent by which other nations could interfere with worldwide shipping. Within the...

Has the amount of tar on the open ocean changed in the past decade?

Quantitative surveys of beach tar on Bermuda during 1978–1979 are compared with similar surveys in 1971–1972. A 15% increase in the mean, while not significantly different from previously observed levels, is significantly higher than the reported 27% decrease due to improvements in tanker operations.

Practical Results with CADSYS

CADSYS is an interactive computer-aided decision support system which interfaces a designer with a mathematical, rather than graphic, model of a design problem. Multiple design goals can be imposed in the form of equality and inequality constraints, whose levels can be manipulated. A numerical search is used to find designs which meet the constraints. CADSYS has now been applied to two real and current design problems: the hydraulic system of a novel inertial navigation unit and the financial, technical, and logistical problem of liquified natural gas tanker design and operation. Both of these studies returned new understanding of the problems themselves and of the capabilities of CADSYS.

Potential effects of reopening and expanding the Suez Canal on the shipment cost of crude oil

This paper examines the likely consequences for the economics of tanker operations of reopening the Canal. Specifically, the focus of this analysis is upon the cost of shipping crude oil from the Persian Gulf to ports in Europe and the United States in ships that transit the Canal at least in ballast. Before the Canal was closed in 1967, the Egyptian Government had begun a program to deepen and widen the Canal to allow for laden passage by VLCCs, and recently has resumed that program. This study provides an analysis of the shipping economics for the Canal with both its 1967 limitations and for an expanded version which would allow for 265,000 DWT tankers to pass through laden by 1980.

Oil Spill Prevention Measures for the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System

ABSTRACT Oil spills only occur after the start-up of a facility but oil spill prevention for a pipeline-terminal-tanker complex begins with route selection and continues through design, construction, personnel training, operation and maintenance. The trans-Alaska pipeline project has faced all of the usual, and some unusual, problems which needed solutions to give maximum assurance that oil spills would not occur during the operating life of the facilities. This conference today is considering the prevention of oil spill incidents associated with tanker and pipeline operations, refineries, and transfer and storage terminals. The trans-Alaska pipeline system is concerned with each of these functions of the petroleum industry. Alyeska Pipeline Service Company is responsible for design, construction, operation, and maintenance of the pipeline system which will move crude oil produced on the Alaskan North Slope along a route to Valdez, an ice free port located on an arm of Prince William Sound. At Valdez, the oil will be transferred to ocean going tankers. The project will have at its ultimate design capacity of two million barrels per day:Almost 800 miles of 48-inch pipeline.Twelve pump stations with 650,000 installed HP.Twenty-million barrels of crude oil storage in fifty-two tanks.Five loading berths at a deep water terminal servicing a fleet of tankers ranging in size from 30,000 dwt to 250,000 dwt.Eight crude oil topping plants, manufacturing fuel for pump stations, each with a charge of 10,000 barrels per day.A ballast water treating plant capable of handling up to 800,000 barrels per day of dirty ballast.A 25,000 KW power generation plant.Several dozen mechanical refrigeration plants which will be freezing the ground in Alaska.

PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION THROUGH UNDERSTANDING

ABSTRACT In order to place new emphasis on marine pollution prevention in the complex field of tanker operations, the author developed, and is currently conducting, a Shipboard Pollution Control Indoctrination and Training Program. This program, presented on-board during passage, covers all aspects of ship operations at sea and in port which have pollution potential. Through the use of movies, slides, formal and informal discussion sessions the officers and crew are given a better understanding of the economic, legal and technical factors of marine pollution; good operating practices are reviewed; the ship/terminal relationship is explored; the policies and programs of management are emphasized; personnel are prepared for more effective action should an incident occur; and the overall pollution control posture of the vessel and terminals is evaluated. Meetings with management are held before and after the shipboard session as a result of which comprehensive pollution control programs are instituted or updated based to a great extent upon the feedback from the ships and recommendations of the author. Based upon experiences with independent, oil company and government contract tanker operators, and government agencies functioning in the field, 1) details of the program and its reception are reviewed, 2) observations are presented relative to conditions and particular problem areas encountered, 3) suggestions for further concerted efforts in the direction of pollution prevention are set forth and, 4) further desirable actions in the direction of education and training are outlined.

USE OF A GRAVITY TYPE OIL SEPARATOR FOR TANKER OPERATIONS

ABSTRACT The need to control the oil content in ballast and tank cleaning discharges to meet increasingly stringent seawater pollution standards has led to the development of a gravity type separator capable of handling up to 300 tons/hour of oily ballast water. When properly handled these separators enable the tanker operator to clean tanks and process oily ballast with an oil content of up to 100% without fear of contamination of the seas. This continuous and automatic operation is unaffected by normal movements. The recovered oil is available for burning as fuel aboard ship, “load-on-top” or disposal ashore. Separators of this type have been in use on three 70,000 DWT ships, for periods of one to three years. On typical voyages a ship of this size can recover enough slop oil to provide one day or more of bunkers if the ship is equipped to burn the recovered oil. The ship's crew is trained to carry out analysis of the oil to determine if the oil can be burned onboard immediately following separation or must be treated to drop out salt and/or water prior to burning. Several typical ballast voyages using the separator will be discussed. The overboard discharge of water from the separator is analyzed to assure compliance with current pollution regulations and a means to shunt the overboard discharge into a holding tank is employed if the oil content is too high. Limitations and possible improvements of this type of separator will also be presented.

THE APPLICATION OF GAS PLANT SIMULATION BY COMPUTER TECHNIQUES TO THE GIPPSLAND PLANT START-UP

Start-up of the first portion of the Gippsland Basin Development project was begun in March, 1969, when gas was delivered into Victorian metropolitan markets. The gas and crude producing system which spans a pipeline distance of some 200 miles will ultimately include five offshore producing platforms and two onshore plant complexes capable of producing and processing 400 MMCFD of natural gas, 300,000 BPD of crude oil, fractionating 45,000 BPD of LPG, and terminalling both crude and LPG including marine tanker operations. The major portion of the plant complexes and three of the platforms have been successfully placed in operation to date.Detailed analysis and planning of all aspects resulted in safely placing these facilities in operation at the earliest possible time with maximum safety and minimum lost production. However, inter-relation of multi-product commitments for natural gas, ethane, LPG and stabilized crude oil compounded the burden of the segmented system start-up, necessitating prompt and frequently overlapping start-up of more than one segment at a time. Furthermore, initial conditions were necessarily quite different from design.Throughput of crude was in the order of 100,000 BPD with significantly different properties from the mix ultimately expected. The gas absorption plant was initially operated with a throughput of approx. 25 MMSCFD, some 8 percent of design. To provide process set points and optimize start-up procedures, computer simulation models of each of the plants were made, and the results integrated into a comprehensive plant start-up plan.This presentation will discuss the simulation techniques used, together with the development and application of the start-up plan.