Tanjung Puting National Park Research Articles

Ecotourism Commodification from A Socio-Economic Perspective (A Case Study of Tanjung Puting National Park, Indonesia)

This research aims to determine the socio-economic impact of the commodification of ecotourism occurs in Tanjung Puting National Park. Data in this study were obtained using a case study method. The economic indicators used include income and employment opportunities. Meanwhile, social indicators include cultural acculturation and the community’s skill level. The results show that the development of this ecotourism is able to create more job opportunities for the public in the tourism sectors such as tour guide, food and beverages service, and travel agents. Public who taking opportunities will generate another source of income. In addition to contributing income to the local community, this ecotourism also contributes Non-Tax Government Revenue (PNBP). The social impact that arises is shifting of the public lifestyle becomes more westernized and an increase in the level of creativity of the public in business entrepreneurship.

The Diversity of Butterflies (Order: Lepidoptera) in Pondok Ambung, Tanjung Puting National Park, Kalimantan Tengah

National parks are one of a site to maintain biodiversity from any damage. Tanjung Puting National Park is one of the national parks in Indonesia with a wide variety of biodiversity, namely butterflies. The aims of this study were to determine the diversity of butterfly species in 5 sub-ecosystems in Tanjung Puting National Park. The five sub-ecosystems are Camp Ambung, post-burn forest, heath forest, lowland forest and swamp forest. In this study, the butterflies were caught through the hunting method by using insect nets and the trapping method by installing food traps. This study was conducted from February to March 2022 for twice times a day from 8 to 12 in the morning and 1 to 5 in the afternoon. The results showed that butterflies collected were 121 species of butterflies from 6 families in Pondok Ambung, Tanjung Puting National Park. In detail, there were 88 species in Camp Ambung, 19 species in the post-burn forest, 14 species in the heath forest, 65 species in the lowland forest, and 38 species in the swamp forest. The diversity index from highest to lowest was Camp Ambung (3.71), lowland forest (3.49), swamp forest (3.02), post-burn forest (2.61), and heath forest (2.36).

Pengembangan Aplikasi Pariwisata Kotawaringin Barat Berbasis GIS Menuju Smart Tourism City

West Kotawaringin Regency is located in Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. This regency has great potential in its tourism. The local government support the tourism by prioritizing the tourism in the local goverment's program, alongside with infrastructure and agriculture. One of the famous tourist attractions in West Kotawaringin Regency which attracts many visitors both local and foreign visitors is Tanjung Puting National Park (TPNP). TPNP is the natural habitat for the Orang Utan, the indigineous and protected fauna from Kalimantan and some areas of Sumatra. Besides TPNP, West Kotawaringin Regency also has some cultural attractions since this regency has a kingdom named The Sultanate of Kutaringin. This regency also has another tourism attractions such as beach attractions, river cruise, souvenir shopping, and local culinary attractions. Although this regency has various tourist attractions, Kotawaringin Barat Regency has not conducted a good tourism governance. At the moment, many tourists just focused only in visiting TPNP. This happened because of their lacking information about the other tourist attractions that this regency serves. Because of this problem, this study is aimed to create a GIS tourism application that is able to provide information to all potential tourists about various attractions that the the regency has. It is hoped that this application will make the tourist visits in the West Kotawaringin area will become more evenly distributed to make West Kotawaringin a Smart Tourism City which will lead to economic equality for the community and tourism activists.

A 50 year decennial survey of male Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) with supplemental genetic analysis in Tanjung Puting National Park, Indonesia

Abstract. Galdikas BM, Linsky RE, Djojoasmoro R, Lorenz J, Wagner RS. 2023. A 50 year decennial survey of male Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) with supplemental genetic analysis in Tanjung Puting National Park, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 2587-2595. This study investigates the declining presence of adult males in a protected wild population of Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) at the Camp Leakey study area in Tanjung Puting National Park (TPNP), Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. Orangutan populations are in decline due to habitat destruction and fragmentation. Documenting changes within existing orangutan populations over time is important to understand demographic changes that may indicate pre-extinction processes and imminent collapse. Wild orangutan behavior has been studied at Camp Leakey since 1971. Observations of orangutans over the past five decades have documented a greatly decreased number of encounters with flanged adult males. A supplementary six-month genetic study was hindered by the fact that only two adult males briefly appeared in the study area in 2016 as compared to 40 adult male encounters in the same time period in 1976. The decline which appears most visible in data from 1986 to 1996 continues into 2006 and 2016. Genotypes from 24 wild adult orangutans encountered in 2016 were analyzed to assess the expected genetic parameters of a wild orangutan population. Pairwise relatedness was high among and between adult females and subadult males. The only two flanged males present during the genetic survey shared zero pairwise relatednesses. However, both flanged males had non-zero pairwise relatedness with other members of the Camp Leakey community and thus it is likely they were from different local areas. These data show the genetic consequences of the observed demographic changes. As TPNP forests have become disconnected from neighboring habitats, natural orangutan male dispersal may be disrupted. Disruption of male dispersal would increase the risk of accelerated extirpation for the orangutan population in TPNP as well as other orangutan populations, especially those that are remnant and less protected.

Cross Species use of Human Microarray Genotyping Technology for Bornean Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) SNP Discovery

Previous genetic studies of orangutans (Pongo spp.) have relied mainly upon mitochondrial DNA or microsatellite short tandem repeats (STR) for genomic genotyping analysis. Scientists have yet to take advantage of the genetic closeness of the great apes to humans for genomic analysis by using advanced techniques available for human genotyping. To genotype orangutans at Tanjung Puting National Park, we developed a novel combination of a methyl-based magnetic enrichment capture of genomic fecal DNA with genotyping on a human targeted single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) microarray, and compared this to additional microsatellite (STR) micro-capillary genotyping. We successfully isolated 125 known human genomic SNP loci (0.08% of those targeted) which hybridized orangutan DNA on the human targeted Illumina Infinium QC array. We estimated genetic diversity and relatedness (r) using three estimators for a total of 32 (21 female and 9 male) wild orangutans at the Camp Leakey study site. Average TrioML relatedness within the sample, estimated from our combo SNP/STR dataset, was at a range consistent with half and first cousins (r = .082). All sampled males and females had relatives within the study site indicating we have verified a local, closely related community of wild orangutans at Camp Leakey.

Pengaruh Kualitas Layanan Pelaku Wisata Terhadap Tingkat Kepuasan Wisatawan Mancanegara Di Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting, Kabupaten Kotawaringin Barat

Indonesian tourism in 2019 provided the second largest contribution after CPO in providing foreign exchange. With this development, currently various regions in Indonesia are developing tourism, one of which is in West Kotawangin Regency with the Tanjung Puting National Plant (TNTP) destination. To develop regional tourism, extra services are needed by tourism actors such as guides, Klotok, food and so on in order to provide satisfaction for both foreign tourists (tourists) and domestic tourists (Wisnus). Therefore, this study aims to 1) determine the effect of the quality of tour kelotok services, on the satisfaction level of foreign tourists visiting Tanjung Puting National Park. 2) Knowing the effect of the quality of tour guide services on the level of satisfaction of foreign tourists visiting Tanjung Puting National Park. 3) Knowing the effect of the quality of food and baverage services on the level of satisfaction of foreign tourists visiting the Tanjung Put National Park. and 4) Knowing the effect of hotel service quality on the level of satisfaction of foreign tourists visiting Tanjung Puting National Park. The research method used. in this research is quantitative with data analysis using Multiple Linear Regression Analysis. The results of the study show that the service quality of tourist services has an effect on the level of satisfaction of foreign tourists, both tour group services, guide services, food and baverage services and hotel services as a whole (simultaneously) have an effect of 60.1% on the level satisfaction of foreign tourists.

Populasi Buaya Senyulong (Tomistoma schlegelii) di Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting Kabupaten Kotawaringan Barat Kalimantan Tengah

Indonesia known as center of Senyulong Crocodile (Tomistoma schlegelii) habitat in Southeast Asia, beside Sarawak and Peninsula Malaysia, Thailand and Brunei Darussalam. In the country, the crocodile can be found in East Sumatra, Kalimantan, and West Java. This research aims to determine the population and structure of Senyulong Crocodile (Tomistoma schlegelii) in Tanjung Puting National Park in West Kotawaringin District, Central Kalimantan. As the results, as many as 56 individuals of Senyulong Crocodile were found in the Camp Leakey Area (Sekonyer Kanan River) to Muara (Muara Ali) within the park, including 8 adult individuals, 15 individual children, and 33 individual infants. Opportunities for the appearance of one individual in the census (p) are 0,58 with a standard deviation (S) of 3.90. Population density (N) estimated about 16.09 individuals. The average observed individual from each observation (x?) was 9.33 individuals.

Positive deviance of Tanjung Puting National Park manager: case of Teluk Pulai Village

Conflict in the national park can be resolved through the positive deviance of national park manager as shown by case of conflict between the Community of Teluk Pulai Village with the Tanjung Puting National Park (TNTP) and the decreased conflict intensity due to policy implementation of village exclusion from the TNTP areas. The objective is to obtain the facts behind the village exclusion processes.The research is using a qualitative approach with a case study strategy and game theory as a quantitative approach. Data collection is conducted through field observation and non-structural in-depth interviews with the informants which are determined through purposive, snowball, and judgmental methods. The literature review is conducted on the applicable regulations and related research. Data analysis conducted through critical discourse analysis compared to the research problem criterion, there are access, conflict, and positive deviance.The result shows facts lying the conflict situation between the Teluk Pulai Village and the TNTP, also the village exclusion from the TNTP areas in which influenced by the role of TNTP’s manager by using the discourse in which deviant positively. Using the discourse, the TNTP’s manager is utilizing the political process of Spatial Planning of Central Kalimantan Province, up to the issuance of Kepmenhut 529/2012. The discourse is deviant since the general practice of national park’s manager are asserting the paradigm of conservation development pointing out the aspects of protection/preservation and conservation. It is called as positive since it is successfully eliminating the conflict between Teluk Pulai Village and TNTP.

Analysis of Ecotourism Development Strategy in Tanjung Puting Province National Park, Central Kalimantan

This study aims to: (a) study and analyze the potential of ecotourism in Tanjung Putting National Park, (b) study and analyze strategies for developing ecotourism in Tanjung Putting National Park, (c) formulate Tanjung Putting National Park ecotourism development strategy. The method of this research is survey and explanation, using primary data and secondary data. Primary data was collected by interview method and filled out questionnaires with 250 respondents selected by purposive sampling. Data analysis tools are SWOT and AHP. The main problem faced in developing ecotourism in Tanjung Putting National Park is the lack of infrastructure and accessibility and guidance to the community about the importance of ecotourism from the Government and Regional Government (Pemda). The results showed that: (a) the potential of Tanjung Puting National Park included a high category seen from the aspect of strength with a value of 3.77 and opportunities with a value of 3.73 (b) Tanjung Puitng National Park ecotourism development strategy was a defensive strategy in quadrant III.
 Keywords: ecotourism; Tanjung Puting National Park; development strategy; SWOT & AHP

Design of River Tour Boat’s Hull For Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting, Central Borneo

Tanjung Puting National Park is a natural wildlife park with a positively increasing trend in the number of visitors. The transportation which is utilized in Sekonyer river is ‘klotok’ boat, a traditional tour boat modified from a fishing boat. The design of a fiberglass-based tour boat is needed to accommodate the limitation of Kalimantan’s logs, which become the main structural components of klotok and to comply with the technical characteristic of the river. The purpose of this study is to obtain the optimum main dimensions of the fiberglass-based tour boat and its hull form design. The method performed to obtain the main dimension of the boat is non-linear optimization with the help of solver in Microsoft Excel software. The process of boat’s hull design is done by line distortion approach where the shape of a reference boat’s hull is conformed to a particular size and hydrodynamical coefficients, which are obtained from the optimization process. The result of optimization process is the main dimension of the boat (Lpp = 12.23 m, B = 2.70 m, H = 1.14 m, T = 0.80 m and Cb = 0.55). By conducting a series of calculations, the obtained value of the total boat’s resistance worths 2,427 N. Therefore, the number of boat’s power needed is less than the power of existing boats. The boat’s hull also complies with technical requirements and regulations, which are freeboard and intact stability.

Partisipasi Pelaku Ekowisata Dalam Upaya Konservasi di Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting Kalimantan Tengah

Ecotourism is responsible travel journey towards environmental sustainability and well being of local communities. The purpose of this reseach was to describe the participation of ecotourism actors on conservation activity at STPN region III Tanjung Harapan, Tanjung Puting National Park . This research is a combination of a qualitative descriptive and quantitative methods with the respondent survey, and skoring analysis methods. The result showed that the value of participation of ecotourism actors is 1.486 which is categorized as medium participation level. The level of participation for conservation efforts by ecotourism actors has been good, they are awareness about conservation likely silence on feeding area, not disposing of waste and taking forest resources, and involvement in ecotourism activities. It is important to increase conservation campaigns through ecotourism and conservation education for ecotourims actors

STUDI HABITAT BUAYA SENYULONG (Tomistoma schlegelii) DI SUNGAI SEKONYER TAMAN NASIONAL TANJUNG PUTING KALIMANTAN TENGAH

Senyulong (Tomistoma schlegelii) are crocodiles that have a unique morphology with shape of the snout in its mouth. This species based on IUCN Red List classified by endangered category (IUCN 2004). This study aim to determine characteristics ofSenyulong Habitat in Sekonyer river, Tanjung Puting National Park Central Kalimantan using by Purposive Sampling in discovery spot or ex crocodile nest, Parameter analyzed by important value index (INP), dominance index (C), index species diversity (H), species abundance index (e), and species similarity index. The results showed the abiotic water habitats in the river water pH 6 which indicated normal, an average of depth 4.5 meters and a water temperature 23.90 ºC. Biotically False Gharial likes the habitat of aquatic plants such as Rasau (Pandanus tectorious), water lily (Hanguana malayana) for sheltering. False gharial aquatic food habitats such as Toman fish (Channa gachua), Gabus (Channa striata) and Runtuk (Channa luchius) Baung (Mystus wyckii), Lais (Lais hexamena). Abiotically terrestrial habitats contain sandy clay texture and histosol soil types with 6 soil acidity, with 78% air humidity and the average temperature of 29ºC. Biologically, Senyulong terrestrial habitat formed by buffer zone with large tree with wide canopy and several types of terrestrial animals Senyulong food such as long-tailed monkeys, orangutans, and wild pigs. The terrestrial habitat of False Gharial is an important place to spawning ground by placing its eggs under a large buttress tree and covering the nest with leaf litter to keep it warm to camouflage egg predators such as to monitor lizards.Keyword: Terrestrial Habitat, Aquatic Habitat, Senyulong, Tanjung puting National Park

Physical and Chemical Analysis of Land in Forest Peat Swamp in Resort Pondok soar, Tanjung Puting National Park, Central Kalimantan

Peatlands are ecosystems with the particular characteristic that is high organic matter content. On the other hand, these features lead to the peat soil vulnerable to decreasing the quality of the land. This study aimed to analyze the physical and chemical properties of peat soil in the peat swamp forest in the Resort Pondok soar, Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan. The method used in this research is systematic sampling with a set of five points as soil sampling with twice replications within the plot measuring 100 m × 100 m. Peat soil at the site of research has added to peat ranged from 20 -> 400 cm. Tests showed there are different levels of maturity of peat from fibric until saprik, and the peat is likely to have the same maturity level or more raw than the maturity level of peat with field tests. The results of color identification are very dusky red, dark reddish-brown, reddish-black, and black. Peat soil has a pH ranging from 3.7-5.2 with an average pH of 4.5 (acidic), does not contain pyrite, ash around 1:13% - 43.88%, and the content of organic C ranges from 32.55% - 57.35%.

Keanekaragaman Hayati Vegetasi pada Sistem Agroforest di Desa Sungai Sekonyer, Kabupaten Kotawaringin Barat, Kalimantan Tengah

Sungai Sekonyer village is a village that bordered by Tanjung Puting National Park (TNTP). Agroforest system is one of the land uses that considering ecology, socio-economy aspects in supporting buffer zone TNTP. The objectives of this research were to analyze the structure and composition of agroforest system, as well as to analyze biodiversity vegetation of the agroforestry system in Sungai Sekonyer Village, West Kotawaringin Regency, Central Kalimantan. This research used purposive sampling and vegetation analysis methods. The results showed that the dominant species at sapling level in agroforest system-1 was oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) with IVI 121.54%, while in agroforest system-2 there was no sapling. The dominant species at pole level both in agroforest systems 1 & 2 was rubber (H. brasiliensis) with IVI respectively 184.88% and 187.08%. The dominant species at tree level in agroforest system-1 was sengon (F. moluccana) with IVI=128.47%, while in agroforestry system-2 was jengkol (A. pauciflorum) with IVI=121.32%. The diversity indices (H’) and species richness indices (Dmg) for both agroforestry systems were categorized as low. Agroforest management, socio-economic aspect, ecological site, and market are the main factor for species selection that indirectly affecting biodiversity status in agroforest system. Enrichment planting using high economic value species that is suitable to the ecological site is necessary to increase community income as well as biodiversity status. Key words: agroforest, Sungai Sekonyer Village, vegetation biodiversity

Perubahan Sosial Ekonomi sebagai Dampak dari Pariwisata Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting (Studi Kasus di Kelurahan Kumai Hulu Kecamatan Kumai Kabupaten Kotawaringin Barat)

This study aims to identify social changes that occur and map various economic benefits of the tourism potential of Tanjung Puting National Park (TNTP). For the people of Kelurahan Kumai Hulu. The benefits of this study are expected to provide information for relevant agencies for the development of TNTP tourism planning and management. There are socio-economic changes that occur to the people of Kumai Hulu, Kumai Sub-district, West Kotawaringin Regency due to the existence of TNTP tourism. Social changes are marked by the awareness of association or grouping in the Kumai community. There are two community associations, namely the Klotok Wisata Kumai Association and the Indonesian Tour Guide Association. Some values shift in the city due to tourism, before around Kumai Hulu many liquor and stall shops were young people who often gathered and drank. Where the needs and demands of tourism conditions are increasingly more significant, foreign tourists make working people start learning foreign languages, for example, Mr. Arsyad who is only a klotok worker until he becomes a guide, by self-taught with direct tourists. Aware of Kumai's public education by referring to choosing education about tourism. Some values shift in the community due to tourism, before around Kumai Hulu many liquor and stall shops were young people who often gathered and drank. Where the needs and demands of tourism conditions are increasingly higher, foreign tourists make working people start learning foreign languages.

KEPADATAN POPULASI MAMALIA DARAT KARNIVORA DI CAMP LEAKEY KAWASAN TAMAN NASIONAL TANJUNG PUTING, KALIMANTAN TENGAH

Borneo has wide land that support high biodiversity. One of them is Tanjung Puting National Park (TPNP), which have biodiversity such as terrestrial mammalian carnivore. Carnivore has a role to maintain its ecosystems. But, there are no data for population density of terrestrial mammalian carnivore. The object of this research is to find out population density of terrestrial mammalian carnivore in Camp Leakey, TPNP, Central Borneo. This research accomplished in September-October 2015 in Camp Leakey. Using line-transect sampling. Data collection was accomplished at 18.00-24.00 Central Indonesian Time (WITA) on eight transects with three times replication by direct surveys and indirect surveys. This research has obtained five species, malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi), leopard cat, and group of civet, like small-toothed palm civet (Arctogalidia trivirgata) and asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus). Population density of each species from the highest to the lowest is 13,5 Individual of leopard cat/km2, 9,84 Individual of malayan sun bears/km2, 4,31 Individual of sunda clouded leopard/km2, and 3,65 Individual of civet/km2. Malayan sun bears, sunda clouded leopards and civets prefer to be in land forest. Leopard cats prefers to be in transition forest.

Male orang-utan bimaturism and reproductive success at Camp Leakey in Tanjung Puting National Park, Indonesia

Unlike most mammals, male orang-utans exhibit bimaturism, in that mature individuals express one of two distinct morphological forms. Socially subordinate, ‘unflanged’ males are comparable to females in their size and facial morphology, while socially dominant ‘flanged’ males exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism and secondary sexual characteristics, primarily in the form of cheek pads (‘flanges’). Although male ornaments in other species are often phenotypically plastic, such characteristics in orang-utans are irreversible—and, given that both morphs are sexually mature and can father offspring—their adaptive significance remains unclear. We determined paternity of orang-utans at Camp Leakey in Tanjung Puting National Park, within the home range of one long-term dominant male, Kusasi, before, during and after his period of dominance, in comparison with subordinate male conspecifics. We found that Kusasi fathered substantially more offspring conceived during his dominant period than any other male and that socially subordinate, unflanged males only fathered offspring during periods of rank instability. We conclude that orang-utan male bimaturism is consistent with an evolutionarily stable reproductive strategy and that reproduction within the range of a dominant, flanged male is highly skewed in his favour, while unflanged males may largely wait for reproductive opportunities.

KEPARIWISATAAN ALAM MERESPON TANTANGAN PERUBAHAN IKLIM Studi Kasus di Taman Nasional Tanjung Putting

Climate may affect the quality and type of tourism activities that developed within a region. There are some natural tourism resources which is very vulnerable toward direct and indirect impacts of the climate change threats. Increased extremely temperatures and also the changes in length of winter or summer may affect visitors length of stay. On the other hand, tourism may contribute to global warming through gas emissions from transportation, accommodation and other related tourism activities. In 2005 UNWTO predict if the tourism business is run as ‘business-as-usual’ scenario, there is no any response or adaptation program, that predicted in 2035 the emissions produced from tourism sector will increase 161% higher than today. Considering these facts, UNWTO invites overall stakeholders of individual to the State level responding to the climate change phenomena by implementing adaptation program in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and preventing global warming threats. This study aims to understand the characteristics of visitor typology and their points of view toward the climate change phenomena. It is also purposed to explore and assess adaptation program that can be developed in Tanjung Puting National Park (TPNP) based on their perspective. The results of this study are as follows: (1). the tourism market of TPNP has a feature of ‘eco-tourist’ with a high awareness and concern towards environ-mental issues, including the threat of climate change phenomena. Visitors of TPNP have a high ethical manner for nature and local culture. Generally, the visitors also have a higher education and income, which is very potential to engage them into an environ-mental conservation, (2). The visitors of TPNP realize that climate change is a serious challenge and need a concrete action. Some adaptation program desired by the visitors are fund raising program for Orangutan conservation and its habitat. The visitors are likely willing to give a donation Rp.172,000.00/visitor. Such concept of the donation is a mechanism of offset emissions generated due their visits by providing funds for conser-vation efforts. The visitors encourage managers of the destination for improvisation and technology investment in the boat (kelotok) machine which as the machine is efficient and less noisy. The visitors also encourage TPNP authority to limit the number of visitors in order to protect the tourism resource of TPNP and maintain the quality of visits; (3). The visitors were unwilling joined with other guests into any public boat of a larger capacity, in order to keep fuel efficiency and GHG mitigation. Merging the visitors traveling with another group instead reducing quality of their trip in Tanjung Puting National Park (TPNP). The visitors are also unwilling to engage in any plantation activities in destina-tion during their visit.

Determinants of Length of Stay Tourists in Tanjung Puting National Park Central Kalimantan Province

Determinants of Length of Stay Tourists in Tanjung Puting National Park Central Kalimantan Province

Reproductive parameters of female orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) 1971–2011, a 40-year study at Tanjung Puting National Park, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

This study presents reproductive parameter data gathered by direct observation over a 40-year period (1971-2011) of the provisioned free-ranging population of orangutans at Camp Leakey in Tanjung Puting National Park, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Age at first reproduction, interbirth interval (IBI), sex ratio at birth, and infant mortality for 19 female orangutans (11 first-generation wild-born ex-captive mothers and 8 second-generation mothers) are included in this analysis. Age at first reproduction among the first-generation mothers was similar to that among wild orangutans, while second-generation mothers had a significantly earlier age at first reproduction. IBIs were similar among first- and second-generation mothers and were significantly shorter than those recorded in studies of wild orangutan populations. There was an expected male-biased sex ratio at birth and a slightly higher than expected rate of infant mortality when compared to wild populations. Infant mortality was primarily seen among second-generation mothers who gave birth before the age of 12, and among first births of some first-generation mothers. These results lend support to the ecological energetics hypothesis, which predicts that increased diet quality leads to a faster rate of reproduction.