Tangible Incentives Research Articles

The incentive structure in an online information market

The principal objective of this research was to understand the incentive structure in a mixed economic and social market for information. Prior research suggests that tangible incentives will crowd...

The Effects of Incentives on Workplace Performance: A Meta-analytic Review of Research Studies 1

A meta-analytic review of all adequately designed field and laboratory research on the use of incentives to motivate performance is reported. Of approximately 600 studies, 45 qualified. The overall average effect of all incentive programs in all work settings and on all work tasks was a 22% gain in performance. Team-directed incentives had a markedly superior effect on performance compared to individually-directed incentives. This effect was not influenced by the location of the study (business, government, or school), the competitive structure of the incentive system (programs where only the highest performers get incentives versus programs where everyone who increased performance receives incentives), the type of study (whether the study was a laboratory experiment or a field study), or the performance outcome (quality, quantity, or both). In these studies, money was found to result in higher performance gains than non-monetary, tangible incentives (gifts, travel). More research is needed on the relative cost-benefit of cash and gift incentives, and the way different types of tangible incentives are selected. Long-term programs led to greater performance gains than shorter-term programs did, and somewhat greater performance gains were realized for manual than for cognitive work. Explanations based on cognitive psychological principles accompany each of the analyses.

The incentive structure in an online information market

AbstractThe principal objective of this research was to understand the incentive structure in a mixed economic and social market for information. Prior research suggests that tangible incentives will crowd out intangible incentives; however, information markets invite special examination of this finding. Data representing four years of activity by 523 researchers who gave about 52,000 answers on the Google Answers Web site were collected. Analysis revealed that the main predictor for researchers' participation was the anticipation of tip (gratuity). Analysis of two researcher subgroups showed that in the case of the frequent researchers, the tip was followed by social incentives: interaction (comments) and ratings. For occasional researchers, the tip was followed by the price paid for answers and then by comments. The results suggest that a pure economic incentive serves as enticement; however, social incentives induce persistent participation by researchers and eventually lead to higher average economic gains. The market is catalyzed by social activity, not cannibalized by it, as may have been predicted by theory. This finding provides empirical evidence for “social capital” since social incentives were connected to higher economic gains. The practical implication is that a mixed incentive design is likely to generate lively information‐exchange environments.

Community-based natural resource management: governing the commons

Community-based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) focuses on the collective management of ecosystems to promote human well-being and aims to devolve authority for ecosystem management to the local (community) level. CBNRM therefore requires strong investments in capacity development of local institutions and governance structures. CBNRM has come under strong criticism for its failures to deliver real benefits to communities. In this paper we explore the reasons for the frequent failure of CBNRM. We postulate that good governance buffers CBNRM against unexpected change, notably conflicts, especially in the early stages when income generation, infrastructure development and capacity development have not yet taken place. We assess the key characteristics of CBNRM governance systems that could perform this buffering function, using case study examples from Macubeni, Nqabara, Makuleke and Richtersveld to support our propositions. In our case studies, 11 strategies have been used to increase the incidence of success of CBNRM: understand and describe the social-ecological system; establish and communicate a clear vision; build on local organizations; plan ahead; create rules for resource use and enforce them; communicate the vision, plan and rules; develop management capacity; finance the initial stages of the initiative; work within available legal frameworks; monitor and learn all the time; and create lasting incentives. Despite these strategies there are, however, a number of obstinate implementation challenges, related to governance shortcomings and external factors which management cannot control. We therefore propose seven additional strategies to promote good governance in CBNRM: 1. Develop knowledge networks that draw on the experience and wisdom of a wide range of key individuals. 2. Establish formalised decision-making structures (e.g. multi-level project steering committees) with clear constitutions and codes of conduct. 3. Clearly define and legitimise conflict resolution procedures. 4. Ensure acceptance of the governance structure by community members. 5. Obtain formal commitment to well-defined roles and responsibilities by key individuals. 6. Establish tangible incentives to key individuals for meeting their commitments. 7. Develop the capacity for facilitation to promote communication. Local communities, government and scientists have important roles to play in maintaining these knowledge and governance networks through adaptive co-management.

The OSCE as an agent of socialisation? International norm Dynamics and political change in Central Asia

This article uses both rationalist and constructivist approaches to explain the OSCE's potential to socialise Central Asia to the norms of liberal human rights and democracy. Whereas from a rational point of view socialisation consists of a process of reinforcement, and its effectiveness depends on the balance between the international and domestic costs and benefits of norm compliance, the constructivist pathway emphasises the legitimacy and domestic resonance of the international norms, and the identity and cognitive prior attitudes of the target actors. By examining the explanatory factors for successful socialisation suggested by both mechanisms it is found that the prospects for domestic change are bleak and hampered by Central Asia's autochthon culture and institutions as well as the OSCE's ineffectiveness in providing tangible material and political incentives. Recommendations concentrate on a better understanding of the cost – benefit calculations of incumbent elites and on a more responsive attitude to Central Asia's non-European political culture.

The Motivational Properties of Tangible Incentives

Employers who spend considerable sums on noncash tangible incentives need to document their effectiveness and investigate the best means of delivery.

International Socialization in Difficult Environments: The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe in Central Asia

This article explores the potential of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) to be an agent of socialization in the five Central Asian Republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. In drawing on both rationalist and constructivist approaches to international socialization it is argued that the organization's inability to provide tangible material and political incentives as well as Central Asia's indigenous culture and institutions impede successful socialization dynamics. Moreover, the power-oriented elites consider the bulk of the OSCE activities to be a threat to their grasp on power, not only making socialization almost impossible but also making OSCE–Central Asian cooperation increasingly difficult to sustain. Recommendations to increase the OSCE's influence in the region concentrate on a better understanding of the cost-benefit calculation of Central Asian governments as well as a more responsive attitude to traditional institutions in the OSCE's approach toward the region.

Is Ambulatory Patient Safety Just Like Hospital Safety, Only without the “Stat”?

The study by Gandhi and colleagues in this issue uses settled malpractice claims to help us better understand the nature of diagnostic errors in the ambulatory setting. Their findings—that such err...

Australian clinician attitudes towards contingency management: Comparing down under with America

Background Contingency management (CM) is an efficacious treatment intervention. Research from the US indicates that clinicians have both positive and negative attitudes towards CM. Concerns about the practicalities of implementation and potential philosophical differences have been identified in American samples. To date, no research has examined Australian clinicians attitudes towards CM nor assessed the extent to which Australian clinicians share the concerns of American clinicians. Method The Provider Survey of Incentives was completed by 102 Australian drug and alcohol treatment providers. The survey assesses both positive and negative attitudes towards tangible and social incentives. Comparisons are made with published data on American samples. Results The proportion of respondents agreeing with positive opinions about CM in this Australian sample was lower than that reported in the American sample. The average percentage agreement for positive aspects of tangible rewards was 41% whereas the average percent agreement for social rewards was 51% indicating more positive views towards social rewards. Objections to CM were similar between the two samples, but American respondents more strongly agreed with the idea that it would not be right to give incentives when clients are still using drugs, whereas the Australian sample had much less difficulty with this concept. Conclusions There appears to be broad support for CM from about half of the clinicians surveyed. The areas of concern were highly similar between the Australian sample and published American data. Many Australian clinicians expressed neutral views about CM, indicating that the environment may be ripe for implementation of programs.

Global Environmental Change: What Can Health Care Providers and the Environmental Health Community Do About It Now?

The debate about whether global environmental change is real is now over; in its wake is the realization that it is happening more rapidly than predicted. These changes constitute a profound challenge to human health, both as a direct threat and as a promoter of other risks. We call on health care providers to inform themselves about these issues and to become agents of change in their communities. It is our responsibility as clinicians to educate patients and their communities on the connections between regressive policies, unsustainable behaviors, global environmental changes, and threats to health and security. We call on professional organizations to assist in educating their members about these issues, in helping clinicians practice behavior change with their patients, and in adding their voices to this issue in our statehouses and Congress. We call for the development of carbon- and other environmental-labeling of consumer products so individuals can make informed choices; we also call for the rapid implementation of policies that provide tangible economic incentives for choosing environmentally sustainable products and services. We urge the environmental health community to take up the challenge of developing a global environmental health index that will incorporate human health into available “planetary health” metrics and that can be used as a policy tool to evaluate the impact of interventions and document spatial and temporal shifts in the healthfulness of local areas. Finally, we urge our political, business, public health, and academic leaders to heed these environmental warnings and quickly develop regulatory and policy solutions so that the health of populations and the integrity of their environments will be ensured for future generations.

Improving community health through evaluations

AbstractThere has been an increasing emphasis on sustainable community development in recent years, which is linked to community health through quality of life and intergenerational considerations. Evaluations are one of the basic tools to improving community health with the most effective evaluations being those that are meaningful to the community itself, and which provide tangible feedback and incentives for improved performance. Drawing on well-known methods, this paper illustrates four important components of community evaluations. Although each method incorporates some or all of these components, their achievements to date have been limited. The reasons for this, as well as how evaluations can play a more effective role in improving community health, are discussed.

Substance abuse treatment providers’ beliefs and objections regarding contingency management: Implications for dissemination

Contingency management (CM) interventions are among the most effective methods for initiating drug abstinence, but they infrequently have been adopted by community drug and alcohol treatment programs. The primary purpose of this investigation was to determine the prevalence of specific beliefs that community treatment providers hold regarding contingency management interventions. We surveyed 383 treatment providers from three geographical areas of the United States regarding moral or ethical objections, negative side effects, practicality, limitations and positive opinions regarding tangible and social CM interventions. Results indicate that positive beliefs were surprisingly prevalent, with providers agreeing with an average of 67% of the positive statements regarding CM using tangible incentives and 54% indicating that they would be in favor of adding a tangible CM intervention to their treatment program. The most prevalent objections to incentive programs were that they cost too much, fail to address the underlying problems of addiction, and do not address multiple behaviors. Social incentives were viewed more favorably than tangible incentives and both were viewed more positively by providers who were supervisors, had advanced degrees, had more addictions experience, and had previous experience with tangible incentives. These findings have implications for improving the dissemination of this empirically-supported treatment.

Academic Health Departments

In August of 2003, 23 institutions submitted proposals to build closer ties between state and local public health departments and schools of public health in response to a solicitation from the Association of Schools of Public Health supported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. This article describes the strategies proposed to build collaboration between public health academia and practice. Qualitative analysis discerned five principal approaches: the development of comprehensive planning processes; reform of the way practica are planned and implemented; the identification and nurturing of boundary-spanning individuals in academia and health agencies; the fostering of new approaches to joint research; and workforce development programs. Major themes that emerged included the importance of achieving a balance of power between academic and health department partners; the need to address cultural differences between institutions; a conviction that efforts at institutional change require both strong leadership and the cultivation of boundary spanners farther down the chain of command; and the idea that prospects for success may be improved if faculty and practitioners have tangible incentives to collaborate.

Ordinary People and “Death Work”: Palestinian Suicide Bombers as Victimizers and Victims

Applying criminological/victimological concepts and theories, the study addresses the social processes involved in Palestinians’ suicide terrorism and describes Palestinians’ pathways to suicide bombing. The data are derived from in-depth interviews of 7 male and female Palestinians serving prison sentences in Israel for attempted suicide bombing. The social background, context, and experiences of the interviewees, including their recruitment, interactions with the organizations that produce suicide bombing, the tangible and intangible incentives and rewards that motivated them to become suicide bombers, their preparation for the mission, and the strategies employed by the organizations to sustain recruits’ resolve to conform to the plan are described and analyzed. The implications of the findings for theory and public policy are drawn and discussed.

Diagnostic imaging pathways: development, dissemination, implementation, and evaluation

There are signs of inappropriate application of medical imaging to diagnosis. Inappropriate imaging is a threat to effective diagnosis and effective allocation of resources. The development and deployment of knowledge-based clinical decision support systems is one strategy to reduce inappropriate imaging. DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGING PATHWAYS: A suite of 78 imaging pathways was conceived both as a decision support and educational tool. The pathways were drafted by imaging specialists, but further developed and modified, based on graded evidence and input from requesting clinicians. An electronic environment was developed to contain and deliver the pathways. DISSEMINATION AND IMPLEMENTATION: Imaging pathways were distributed via a hospital local area network and on compact disk. A multifaceted approach was used to raise general awareness of the pathways, followed by intensive 'marketing' activities. Two groups of clinicians were targeted; hospital-based clinicians and general practitioners. There was increased awareness of imaging pathways. Clinicians judged them to be useful for education and decision support. The method of electronic delivery was adequate. Knowledge of diagnostic imaging and requesting behaviour tended to become more aligned with the pathways. The central objective to reduce inappropriate medical imaging seems to be achievable. There is scope to improve the content and the electronic environment, achieve better integration into decision-making processes, and achieve better compliance. A linkage between imaging pathways and electronic requesting could provide alerts to 'non-compliant' requesting. The assignment of a higher cost, or a lower remuneration, to non-authorized and non-compliant imaging would provide tangible incentive to comply, unless there are compelling clinical contraindications.

La Russie et le protocole de Kyoto : une ratification en trompe-l'œil

After the withdrawal of the US from the Kyoto Protocol in 2001, the fate of the treaty was entirely in the hands of the Russian Federation. Russia used its pivotal position as a tool for seeking political advantage and tangible incentives. This paper examines the internal forces in Russia both for and against ratification and presents some key players in the controversy. Now, with the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol, it has become clear that Russia will fulfil its commitments in terms of stabilization of the level of emissions at no cost, that Russia has no public energy policy to address climate change and that Russia is not ready to take advantage of its involvement in the global regime. This is mainly due to the lack of a legal institutional framework for domestic implementation of the treaty. In the Russian context, these difficulties are related to the struggle for control over the energy sector and to the competition for the control over natural resources between the federal authorities and the elites in the regions.

The antecedents of co‐operative behaviour among project team members: an alternative perspective on an old issue

Poor project performance is generally attributed to a lack of co‐operation between project participants. Much work is directed towards understanding the structural and organizational antecedents of co‐operation, but little in understanding how socio‐psychological factors affect individual co‐operative behaviour. Using social identity theory, this study attempts to fill this research gap by arguing that individuals define their self‐concepts through the organizations with which they identify and that these identity‐based forces are the basis for the development of co‐operative behaviour. Empirical findings using responses from 398 senior executives of construction firms substantiate this argument, as individuals with strong organizational identity are indeed more psychologically predisposed to behave co‐operatively. There are grounds to propose that organizational identity should be used in conjunction with other tangible economic incentives as effective mechanisms for improving individual co‐operation. Therefore, rigorous attempts by construction firms to foster such identity may prove fruitful to overall project performance. Further research is needed to explore how it may impact on other important aspects of co‐operation such as decision making and problem solving processes within the construction industry.

Regional Ocean Governance: A Critique of Two Recent Proposals

Two recent expert panels, the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy and the Pew Oceans Commission, have focused on analyzing and proposing solutions to the ocean management problems of the United States. Both panels have come up with concrete and detailed recommendations for mitigating governance problems that have plagued this field for decades. Many of the recommendations are specific and useful, and the panels have provided a service to the nation in constructing them. In this article, we consider the sets of recommendations pertaining specifically to institutions of regional ocean governance. Unlike the majority of recommendations, which are very helpful, we argue that the proposals from both panels for regional ocean governance are not well-developed. We formulate a critique along three lines. First, to be effective, regional institutions must be tailored to the scale of specific problems and focused on those problems. Second, the political entities that comprise the membership of a regional institution must have tangible incentives to participate in decision making. Third, the right to use the resources of those areas of the ocean under U.S. jurisdiction belong to the nation, not to any particular region. We conclude that the nation must pay attention to the lessons of other attempts at regional governance, otherwise it may end up with a system of management that seems simple in concept but merely symbolic in practice.

Scientific Evaluation in Women’s Participatory Management: Monitoring Marine Invertebrate Refugia in the Solomon Islands

This paper summarizes the results of a women’s community-based marine protected area that has been successful in sustaining invertebrate biological resources and in promoting strong community support. We outline the project and the associated biological results, describe the processes involved in attaining a committed level of community participation, and review the lessons learned during the project’s implementation. We attribute the project’s preliminary success—improved shellfish biomass, enhanced local environmental awareness, and the reinvigoration of cultural management practices—to the following factors: 1) the high level of participatory involvement and community leadership; 2) the local perception that shell beds have recovered rapidly and the role that scientific evaluation has played in reinforcing this notion; 3) a research program that is cross-fertilizing indigenous and scientific ecological knowledge; 4) the unique marine tenure system that allows for the project’s development and the area’s policing; and 5) the tangible economic incentives created by the development project, which ultimately empowers local women. We hope that the project’s findings can be generalized to other regions of the world with operational sea-tenure regimes and that it can help to make the establishing of community-based marine protected areas (CBMPAs) across the Pacific region more effective.

Successful Techniques for Retaining a Cohort of Infants and Children Born to HIV-Infected Women: the Prospective P2C2 HIV Study

Retaining subjects from disadvantaged populations in long-term studies is necessary to obtain high-quality data. This article presents cumulative retention rates from a 5-year prospective cohort study, the Pediatric Pulmonary and Cardiovascular Complications of Vertically Transmitted HIV Infection study. It also presents results of a cross-sectional qualitative survey about factors that induced caregivers to stay in the study. Although the repeated study visits were long and uncomfortable, cumulative retention among the 298 HIV-infected children was 80%. Incentives considered important by the caregivers included phone contact with nurse coordinators, nurse coordinators accompanying the caregiver and child during visits, phone reminders for appointments, help with scheduling, meals and transportation, access to health care, and relationships with staff. Thus, the high follow-up rate was in part due to nurses' efforts to reduce the study's burden on the families, provide tangible and intangible incentives, and establish personal relationships with families.